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CANDRA  CAKRAVARTI 


LITERARY  HISTORY 
OF   ANCIENT   INDIA 

In    Relation    to  its    Racial 
and  Linguistic   Affiliations 


l.—RIK-SAMA-TAJUR-ATHARVA  VEDAS — BRAHMANAS — DHARilA- 
SUIRAS — UPANISHADS — RAMAYANA  -  MAHABHARATA— THE  ETHNIC 
AND  HISTORICAL  BACK  GROUND.  2.  — SCRIPT.  3.— STELLAR  MYTHS 
4. — ASTRONOMY.  5,— ARTS.  6, — COINS.  7. — INDIAN  KINGDOMS  IN 
KHOTAN  AND  INDONESIA — BUDDHIST  AND  HINDU  TANTRA  CULTS. 


VIJAYA  KRISHNA  BROTHERS  OMIN  CO.  INC. 

81,  Vivckananda  Road  New  York 

CALCUTTA-6  U.  S.  A. 


PREFACE 

There  are  plenty  of  materials  of  anthropological,  ethnic, 
sociological  and  cultural  importance,  scattered  through  the 
Vedas,  Upanishads,  Puranas,  archeological  finds,  architectural 
monuments,  coins,  sculptures  and  .  inscriptions.  These  have 
been  investigated  to  v^^rite  this  Literary  History  of  Ancient 
India  which  naturally  connotes  also  the  History  of  its 
Civilization,  and  Culture— Krishti  Ev.  1.  4.  6.  Literature 
embraces  various  subjects  of  studies,  including  animal  husbandry, 
af^roaomics,  crafts,  and  sciences  which  have  been  hardly  dealt 
with  ia  these  pages.  The  soil  regarded  as  the  precious  gift  of 
the  Mother  Earth,  and  like  her  boundless  love,  is  inexhaustible 
if  properly  maintained  with  the  rotation  of  leguminous  herbs 
and  sustained  by  an  year  old  residual  sludges  of  the  dung  pits 
where  cattle  droppings  and  human  excreta  (sakrt  — Gk.  skatos 
=  Lat.  cacare)  mixed  with  human  and  animal  food  remnants, 
vegetable  and  agricultural  wastes  were  converted  within 
G-9  mDnths  into  excellent  nourishing  fertilizing  inocuous 
humus.  Irrigation  by  canals  and  drawing  water  through  water 
wheels  from  the  rivers  and  wells  were  known  even  in  Vedic 
periods  (Rv,  3.  4.  3-5  ;  7,  69,  12  •  10.  99.  4)  ;  so  the  improvements 
of  seeds  of  desired  characteristics  through  cross-breeding, 
by  proper  selection  and  acc^amatizing  them  to  exposures  to 
alternate  heat  and  cold,  and  enveloping  them  with  a  kind  of 
mud  mixture  pellet  to  prevent  their  destruction  through 
insects  and  to  facilitate  their  quick  germination  in  contact  with 
water,  were  known  (Parasara  Krishi  Tantra  of  6th  century). 

I  am  well  aware  therefore  of  the  disproportion  which  exists 
between  the  magnitude  of  my  task  and  the  imperfections  of 
this  book.  I  have  simply  tried  in  this  work  to  focus  attention 
from  divergent  angles  of  vision  to  avoid  the  errors  from  the 
study  which  is  made  from  one  point  of  view  only -a  thing  which 
has  been  generally  neglected. 


THE  LITERARY  HISTORY 
OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Rk    (-rch-arka  =  Arm.  erg   (praisel-Gk.    orego  ;    i:ta  =  Zd. 
arta- Gk.  arti  —  Lat.  artas— Ger.  recht  =  ritual)  Veda  (Zd.    vaeda 
-=Lat.     video    (to      seel-OSlav.    vede-Ger.    Wissen)    Samhita 
is  the  oldest   literary    collection  in    India   next   to    Mohenjodaro 
and  Hirappa  ideographic  seals.     But  in  Purusha    Snkta    (x,   90), 
wa  find  that  "from    the    universal   Jajiia   (Zd.  Yasna)   originated 
Roah=»Rk3,    Chaudansi    (Zd.    zend -chants  — Sama),   Yajus   (Zd. 
yazai  — G-k.    agos,    agizo)    and    Ajayata-Ni    (Zd.  ni-Gk.   eni  — 
Slav.      nizu  =  Ger.       ni-dar- beneath)  -  Vids  —  Atharva      Magic 
Spells,"    X    90.9.      "His  mouth   was    the    Brahmana    (Flamen), 
his  arms,  Rajanyah  (regnants  — Lat.  regnum),  his  thighs  Vaishyah 
(Bessi),  and  his  legs,  Sudra  (Chudes),  x,.  90,  12,  though    the  First 
and  Teath  Mandalas  of  the  Rk    Veda    are  supplements.     Vajain 
(Vagienni=  Vajji)  Yajnavalkya  (Zd.  yasna  — sacrifice  ;  varcas  =  Zd. 
varecah  =  strengthener),  a    contemporary    of  Parikshita'a  grand- 
son    Sataniki,    Abhira     (Avar)     Cando     Pradyota     of     Avanti, 
■Udena- Udayana  (of  Udes  tribe)  of  Kausambhi,  and  Sakya  (Sacae 
=  Chin.  Sek)  Gotam  Buddha,  is  reputed  to  be  the  compiler  of  the 
Yajus.  especially  Vajasenayi  Samhita.  The  vedic  compilations  are 
ascribed  to    Vyasa  =  Lat.     vates     (poet   and  prophet).     Rk   Veda 
has     10L7    Suktas     (hymns  ;     including     Bala   (Lith.   vaikas)- 
Khilays  (Cymr.  coel  =  (3-ael.  cel  =  OSlav.  heil  =  Gk.  koilo- youngest 
■supplements.    iUJ8),  10,   l35J   Rks  =  stanzas,    1053,    826  Padas- 
liuealfeat- verses,  and    4,32.000    soaras  — words     of   which  24oO 
Padas  are  repetitions,  excluding   the   refrains    (nodarka),  divided 
into  10  sections  (Mandalasi.     The    family  6ections-2   to  8-are 
the  oldest.     These  Prakrit  family   collections    were    revised    and 
Sanskritized  (Rv.  10,  71,  2)  many  times.*    But  in  final  redaction, 
all   the   hymns   of   the    refreshing    and     stimulating    Pavamana 
(clearly  flowing)  Soma    (Zd.   haemo-S.   Chin,    huo-ma  =  hemp  ■= 

*As  food  grains  are  refined  through  a  sieve,  the  learned  after  delibera- 
tions have  developed  this  language  so  that  the  a3S9ciates  may  communicate 
with  each  other  in  assemblies  with  this  enriched  ennobled  speech 
(saktum  iva  nitaun\  punanto  yatra  dhira  manasa  vacam  akrata  atra 
sakhayah  sakhyani  j^nate  bhadraish^m  lakshmir  nihitadhi  v5ci 
Rv.  X.  71.  2).  Yaska-Nirukta  1.16  answers  the  objections  of  Kautsa  that 
the  vedic  mantms  are  meaningless  (anarthaka  hi  mantrah)  by  pointing 
out  that  the  Vedas  have  meaning,  because  their  words  are  identical  with 
the  spoken  speech  (arthavantah  sabda  s^manyat  :  samanyat  :  samana  eva 
sabdo  loke  mantreshuca  =  identical  are  the  words  of  both  spoken  tongue 
jind  the  Vedas  ;   similar  words  occur  in  both. 


4  THB  LITERABY  HISTOBT  CF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Cannabis  sativa,  though  some  have  also  identified  it  with 
Ephreda  which  is  called  Hum)  were  taken  out  and  gathered 
into  a  separate  Ninth  Mandala ;  and  miscellaneous  popular 
ballads  were  grouped  into  first  and  tenth  Mandalas.  Second 
Mandala  appears  by  its  archaic  words  to  be  the  oldest, 
ascribed  to  Gritsa  (clever)  Madas  (Gritsa  -  Mada  priya  deveshu, 
Kv.  2.41,  18.  Medes  were  called  Mandas  by  Cyrus  ;  Assyrians  in- 
Esarhaddon's  inscription  called  the  Kimmerians  =Kinnara 
as  Mandas.  Naramsin  had  to  defend  the  Assyrian  empire  against 
the  attacks  of  Umman-Manda  coming  from  the  north  •,  Achaem, 
Mada,  Madai  •,  Madras,  Manda-Marunda  j  Airam  Mada  Bv.  x, 
146.  There  is  a  Kinnar  non-Mongoloid  people  in  Kulu  valley, 
Xiahour  and  "Rampur  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej  on  Tibetan 
border,  though  now  practising  polyandry.  Yudisthira  had 
Kinnara  bodyguards).  Next  comes  the  Fifth  Mandala  of 
Atrayas  (Ev.  5,40.9;  Atreyas-Atrena)  ;  Sixth  Mandala  of 
Bharat  (Brutti  =  Phraotes)-Vaias  (6.25-9  =  Vagienni)  ;  Third 
Mandala  of  Gathino  (1,  7,  1  — Guti,  Gudi-Gudea  Kurds -Quadi 
=  Gaddis  of  Gaderan  of  the  Kangra  valley)  Visvamitra  (3,  6iJ^ 
13- Vispamitra  Udambara  =  Finno-Ugrian  Udmurt -coins  have 
been  found  in  Jallender  area;  — Kusika  (Kosik,  a  Hun  tribe, 
MBh.  1,  71  ;  3,  84  ;  a  Maharaja  Visvamitra  Svami  is  mentioned 
in  a  Besnagar  — east  Malava  seal  inscription)  ;  Seventh  Mandala. 
of  Vasishtha  (7,  7,  7  — Varisti)  •,  Fourth  Mandala  of  Gotama 
(Gothones- Goths,  4,  32,  9)  Vama  (Fr.  femme)-deva  (lords)  j 
Eighth  Mandala  of  Kanvasas  (Chaones,  8,  4,  2). 

Gritsa-Mada  (2,  li'4)  to  Indra  :  Make  us  strong  with  Dasir 
(Daci),  Visah  (Bessi)  and  Suryena  (Sauro-Mat89)  =  x,  148.2  of 
Prithu  (Parthian)  Vainya.  Gritsa-Mada  (2,  £6"4)  :  It  is  not 
proper  for  a  number  of  youthful  maidens,  humected  by  excite- 
ment, to  dote  coquetishly  over  one  youngman.  Apala  Atreyi 
(8,91,5  —  6):  Indra,  grow  in  these  three  places -my  father's 
head,  his  cultivated  field,  and  below  my  belly  (upodare,  =  pubes- 
where  there  is  scanty  growth  of  hair  in  adreno-ovarian  insuffi- 
ciency ;  the  female  body  is  glabrous  or  has  downs  except  there  is 
hairy  growth  on  head,  brows,  eye  lashes,  pubes  and  axillae)  ;  let 
crops  of  hair  sprout  up  in  the  yon  cultivated  field  of  ours,  on  my 
private  parts  and  on  my  father's  head. 

A  Hittite  text  of  Myrselos  of  the  middle  of  I4th  century  B.  C.  mentions 
Ahhiyava  as  a  naval  power  under  the  leadership  of  Attairsiyas  (Atreus=- 
Atreyas).  Ahhiyava  =  Achaeoi  (Ikhaku  =  Okkaka)  as  the  sea  people 
occupied  Cyprus  in  14th  century,  plundered  the  coast  of  Caria,  and 
became  the  ally  of  the  Hittite  king.  According  to  Madhuritta  cuneiform 
text  found  at  Boghaskoi,  Cyprus  with  its  capital  Alasia  was  occupied  by 
another  sea  roving  Greek  people  Attarisija  (Atreus)  of  Piggaya  during  the 
time  of  Hittite  king  Arnavanda  (1225—1205).  Hittite  kings  of  15th 
century  were  seated  on  lion-footed  thrones  (I.  L,  N.  Dec.  1929).  They 
were  followed  by  Danauo  i^Danae  =  Dans  =»  Danu,    Danava)  and  Philistines. 


BIG VEDA  6 

Syavasya  Atreya,  5,  82.  3  :  May  Savita  and  Bhaga  bestow 
the  treasures — wealth  on  Daseshu  (Dacis)  =  7.  66,  4  of  Vashista 
to  Adityas  :  When  the  hero  (sura  — Surya)  rises,  sinless  Mitra, 
Aryam^  Suvati  Savita  Bhagah  ;  here  suvaii  ia  meaningless  and 
seems  that  the  Pada  is  borrowed  from  the  Atreyas.  Visruta 
Atreya  5,  4,  10  :  Give  us  fame  ;  bestow  on  us  immoriality  through 
our  progeny  fyaso  asmasu  dhchi  ;  prajabhir  amritatvam  as}Tim). 
Vasisitha  :  Like  the  self-regulating  inviolate  order  of  Aditi,  great 
kings  rule  (uta  svara  jo  Aditir  adabdhasya  vratasya  ye,  maho- 
rajana  isate.  7.  60.  6).  Vasisthas  wore  white  garments  and 
arranged  their  Jcapardas  —  crown  shaped  spiral  coils  of  the 
braided  plaited  matted  hair  — on  the  right  side  of  the  head, — 
Rv.  7,  33,  I  ;  83.  y.  Vitihavya  .in^trasa- Ancharius,  5,  l5,  12  : 
O  Agni  (there  is  also  Agnean  Kucha  Tocharian  clan),  guard  us 
from  those  that  will  attack  us  ;  save  us.  o  thou  victor,  from 
dishonour  ;  thy  smoke-screened  path  follows  thee  ;  let  wealth 
be  ours  in  thousands  — 7,  4,  9  of  Vasishtha.  Agni  is  the  issue 
of  the  friction  of  two  pieces  of  fire  sticks  — aranis- the  upper 
part  male,  the  lower  female  i'3,  v?9.  "i,  25).  The  fire-drill  is 
Pramantha  =  Gk,  Prometheus  ;  Yavishtha,  1,22, 10  =  Hephaistos  ; 
Bharanyu  — Phoroneus.  Rahugana  Gotama  to  Ushas  -  Eos,  1,  92, 
7  :  Radiant  chief   (netri),    forerunner   of  good    news    (after   long 


Pelasgoi  =  Egypt.  Pulasati  -  Assyr.  Pulastu ->  Pulasta)  who  ushered  iron 
age,  superceding  bronze  in  12th  century.  In  Hattushash  =  Boghazkeui 
inscription  Pala  is  the  language  of  the  country  Palaumniti.  Anatolia  was 
occupied  by  18th  century  B.  C.  by  the  Hittites  (Khatti  in  Assyrian 
inscriptions  ;  Kheta  of  the  Egyptians  ;  Keteioi  of  Homer).  But  by  14th 
century  the  northern  parts  of  Anatolia  were  occupied  by  the  Bryges 
(Phrygios- Phrygians  =  Bhrigus),  and  the  Khattis  were  pushed  south.  In 
1182  B.  C,  Phrygian  Troy  was  attacked  by  the  Achaean  confederacy,  and 
after  10  years  struggle,  destroyed  it.  known  as  Trojan  War.  By  the 
Achaean  incursions,  Phrygians  (Bhrighus)  were  pushed  south,  and  they 
in  their  turn  drove  the  Khatti  further  south.  Syavasva  (darkish  horse) 
Atreya,  contemporary  of  Taranta  fTaranchi  of  Hi  region)  to  the  daughter 
of  Rathavite  Darbha  '5,  61,  10,  17)  whom  he  married  :  Many  a  woman  is 
often  better  than  the  faithless  unloving  man  (uta  tva  stri  sasiyasi  punso 
bhavati  vasyasi  adevatrad  aradhasah  (5,  61,  6).  She  understands  (succours) 
the  tired,  thirsty  or  the  amorous  and  directs  their  minds  towards  gods 
(vi  ya  j'Hnati  jasurim,  vi  trishyantam  vi  kaminam  devatra  krinate  manah  : 
S,  61,  7).  Yet  many  unpraised  mean  misers  are  called  men,  only  in  wergeld 
(amonst  the  Teutons  the  value  set  on  a  man's  life  to  be  p.aid  to  avoid 
retaliation  by  his, kindred  ;  vairadeyaK  5,  61,  8.  And  this  joyous  sprited 
maiden  is  showing  me  the  path— to  this  darkle  (uta  me  'rapad  yuvatir 
mamandushi  prati  Syavaya  vartanin.  5.  61,  9).  There  was  another 
Sumitra  Vadhryasva,  castrated  horse  (x  69.  3),  father  of  Divo-DAsa  6.  61,  1. 
You  have  conquered  the  plain  and  mountain-dwelling  Dacis,  Arattas  and 
Aryas,  hero  like  daring  Cyavana-Sabini  peoples  (sam  ajraya  =  Lat,  ager, 
Gk.  agros  -  Parvatya  vasuni  Das\  -  Dacis  -  Vritrani  -  Arattas  -  Aryi  -  Arii 
jigetha  sura  iva  drishnus- Lith.  =  drislu.  Gk.  tharsein  -  Cyavano 
Sabini-jananam  x,  69,  6.     Vaptr,  x,  143.  4 -barber. 


6  THE  LITEBAET  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

polar  night),  the  daughter  of  the  sky  (Diva-duhita —Lett. 
Dievvodukte)  ;  lauded  by  Gotamas  (Gothones)=  1,  113,  4  of 
Kutsa—Kutzo-Vlachs.  Gotama  Vamadeva,  4,18,  13:  Rachan. 
==Busniak  (Little  Russians)  are  called  Ku-tse  in  west  Caucasus. 
Gotama  Vamadeva,  4,  19,  7  :  Youthful  virgins  (agru)  during 
their  ruts  become  fountains  of  seductive  charms.  Gotama 
Yamadeva,  4,  19,  9  :  The  maiden's  son  whom  ants  were  eating 
was  rescued  from  the  ant  hill.  Gotama  Vamadeva  4,  18,  13  : 
During  privations,  I  cooked  dog's  (suna  —  Gk.  chuoa  —  Fr.  chien 
==Lat.  canis)  intestines  ;  among  the  gods  I  found  no  succour,— 
I  saw  my  wife  dishonoured.  Kakshivan,  1,  12,3  —  4:  Clothed  in 
light,  Ushas  ^Eos  was  regarded  as  Aphrodite  ;  Zd.  Asa  vahista  = 
Skt.  vasista  — Goth,  batista,  best)  as  a  maiden  appears  in  the 
east  and  unveils  her  charms.  Ahana  1,123'4=' Athena, 
Saranyu  x,  l7.2=-Erinys.  Gathina  Visvamitra,  8,  62,  10: 
Tat  (that)  Savitur  (Savitar's)  varenyam  (excellent)  bhargo 
(radiance  =  light)  devasya  (divine)  dhi  (desires)  mahi  (  great  => 
ardent)  dhiyo  (fulfil',yo  (who -which )  n ah  (nas  =  Zd.  na  =  Gk.  no  = 
Lab.  nos  — Fr.  nous  =  our)  procodayat  (stimulate).  =■  That  Savitri's 
(viviQer  :  vivifying  power  of   the    morning  sun)   excellent    divine 

Lic^ht let     it     inspire      us      and      fulfil     our     ardent     desires 

(heliotheraphy).*  According  to  Brahma  Purana  13,89  and- 
Harivamsa  27, 12-13,  Kusika  Visvamitris  lived  with  Pahlavas — 
Parthians  where  solar  worship  was  common.  Madhuchandas 
Vaisvamitra  1,  4,  6  -6  :  Though  these  men  may  mock  at  us  and 
say,  Depart  unto  another  place,  our  own  men  call  us  cultured 
(uta  bruvantu  no  nido  nir  anyatas  cid  a  rata  voceyur  dasma. 
Krishtayah).  3.4.8-11  of  Gathina  Visvamitra -7,  2.  8-11  of 
Vasishtha  Maitra-varuni.  Durable  twilight  with  refulgence  is 
characteristic  of  the  Arctic  region  ;  its  knowledge  was  sung  by 
Gotamas  (Gothones  even  after  migrations  to  tropics,  7,  67. i 
Tamasas  cid  antah  =  limits  even  of  darkness;  2,27.14  Asyam 
abhayam  jyotir  ma  no  dirgha  abhinasan  tamisrah  =  may  I   reach 


♦Other  interpretations  are  possible.  In  3.62.8  the  singer  asks  Pvishan  to 
fulfil  his  desires  as  the  bridegroom  satisfies  the  desires  of  his  brides- 
(Vadhnyur  iva  yoshanam).  Pushan  resembles  Gk.  Pan  who  was  the  _  god 
of  fertility.  So  Tat  Savitur  (Subigus  the  Roman  God  of  wedding  night) 
barenyam  (choicest  woman)  bhargo-devasya  (of  divine  radiance)  dhi-mahi 
(of  intense  libido  j  dhiyo  (procure)  yonah  (yona  =  conception  rite  = 
Garbha-dana)  yo  (who;  nah  (Lat.  nos  =  Fr.  nous -us)  pra  (ardent;  codayat 
(coitus).  =  Let  Savitri  give  us  the  choicest  (woman)  of  intense  libido  so 
that  by  her  ardent  coitus  conception  may  be  ptocured._  3.62.11,  Devasya 
Savitur  vayam  vajayantah  puramdhya  bhagasya  (vagina  or  of  Bhaga) 
ratim  (favours,  ratiin  =  pleasures  )  imahe  =  we  earnestly  pray  to  divine 
Savitri  to  grant  us  coitional  pleasure  ;  here  the  favours  of  Bhaga  is 
irrelevant  and  meaningless.  Savitrim  =  prasava-karanam.  Sarvaloka 
prosavanat  Saviia  satu  kirtate,  Vahni  Puranam,  which  indicates  clearly  the 
procreating  function  of  Savitri. 


RIQVEDA  7 

the  broad  protective  light  ;  may  not  long  darkness  overtake  us. 
So  of  long  days,  even  of  six  months  duration  i  Chandajya  Up  x  1, 
2--J).  In  Ramayana,  Kishkindhya  43,  38-54,  it  is  mentioned 
in  Uttara-Kuru  (Kurland),  even  when  there  is  no  sun,  there 
is  refaigeace- aurora  borealis  (UttaraKuruvastha  deso  visuryohpi 
tasya  vasa  prakasate). 

Vasishtha  to  Saraavati  — flowing  water— Zd.  Harahvati  «= 
Aquarius.  7/26.6  :  Protect  ua  }  give  us  progeny  (  prajan)  and 
food  =  9.S.9  of  Asita  (Ossete)  Kasyapa  (Kasipi  —  Kaspi  =  Caspian 
Scyths).  Rijisvan  Bharadvaja.  6.ol,  6:  Dyaus  (Zd.  Dyaosh- 
Lith.  Diewas  — Zeus)  our  father  (Dyau3-pitah  =  de08  pater- 
Jupiter  -  father  God),  Earth  (prithivi)  mother  pure.  Agni 
brothel'  aad  Vasavo  (  — Gk.  Eaon  =  Zd.  Vaehu,  Vohu  =  Gael.  uisu 
rix  =Goth.  iu-sza  —  Gei*.  ess)  bless  us.  United  they  were  called 
Dyava-Prithivi  — Rodasi  (2,27,l'i)  =  Gk.  Rhodas.  Narada  Kanva 
to  Indra,  «. 13.25  :  Give  us  abundant  food  and  protect  us  well  — 
y.6L.l5  of  Amahiyu  Angirasa  to  Pavamano  Soma.  Asita  Devala 
—  Zd.  Dahae- Chin.  Ta-Hia  of  Bactria^  9.18.1  :  Of  mountain 
(giri  — Lith.  gire— Zd.  gairi  =  OSlav.  gore).  Soma  best  grown  on 
Mount  Mujavat  X.  ci4.  t=»  Mazanderan  and  amonst  the  Arjikas, 
9.65."^3=»  Ar-Sacea  — Ar-Shaka)  through  sieve  becomes  the 
most  stimulating  drink,  Dirgha  (  Dargha)  -  Taraas  (Tamas) 
l,164.y3:  Dyau  (Lat.Deo  =  Gael.  Dia  =  Fr.  Diea-heaven) 
is  our  generating  father  ;  here  is  our  relation  ;  this  great  Earth 
is  our  friendly  iSIother  (Dayur  me  pita  janita,  nabhir  atra  ; 
bandhur  me  mata  Prithivi  mahiyam.  Vasishtha  7.41.5  j 
Bhaga  (Zd.  Bagha  =■  Slav.  Bogu  =  Lith.  Bagotas  — Gk.  Bogaios  ; 
Bhagastano  —  Behistan)  eva  Bhagavan  (Arm.  house  of  God). 
Bhagiratha  -Gk,  Bagora^as  (waggon  of  Bago),  Bagradas.  Jamad- 
Agni  (Lithaaanian  J'7;iowc?  — Zbmud  «=>  Zins,  allied  with 
Reudigni,  Marsigni  and  Peligni  or  Tocharians  who  were  known 
as  Agnis  ;  8.90. 15)  :  To  people  who  understand,  I  shall  proclaim 
—Injure  not  Aditi,  the  cow,  sinless  (anagas— Gk.  anages  j 
agas  — Gk.  agos  ;  Aditi— the  infinite  expanse  of  the  sky,  was 
conceived  as  a  cow  — Hathor  by  ancient  Egyptians,  consort  of 
Adad,  the  Aramaean  sky  and  thunder  god.  7i?tr7t(Lithuanian 
Kors  of  Kurland  -  0  Pers.  Kurush,  Gk.  Cyrus  of  Karasani- 
SrAvana  (-glory,  Zd.  aravahi  ;  X.  33,  2-8)  :  Persians  (Parsava- 
Achaera.  Parsa)  like  co-wives  are  pressing  me  ;  poverty,  naked- 
ness and  fatigue,  as  mouse  gnaws  at  sisna  (  leather  phallus  : 
Copt,  sisinnios  as  a  charm  amulet)  are  tearing  me  out  ;  my  mind 
is  now  restless  like  a  flying  bird.  8  51,  8.  Ojasa  Krivim  "Tjxih. 
Krivichi  =  Krive  Kriveyto.  Airavata  (=  lightning,  as  bearer  of 
Indra,  became  associated  with  elephant)  Jarat  (Zd.  zareta  — 
OSlav.  zareti.  zreti  =  Gk.  geron-old  man) -Kama  Sarpa  (X,  76) 
or  Sharpa,  a  clan  found  in  N,  Nepal,  was  regarded  as  Kauravya. 
Sarama  (Sarmatfe  who  included  the  Lithuanians  )  and  the 
Panis  (Pcoai  =  Phcenike3  ;   Pani,  a   tribe  in  Baluchistan  or  Parni 


8  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

of  Parthia  ;  later  Vanika  )  x,  10-i  :  What  wish  of  Sarama 
has  brought  her  here  ?  How  hast  thou  made  thy  way  over 
Rasa's  (Volga  was  called  Rhos)  waters  ?  Rocky  cave  is  our 
treasure  chamber,  full  of  valuable  kine  and  asses  ;  watchful  Panis 
guard  them  over.  Thy  expedition  will  be  in  vain.  But  turn 
thee  back  not  ;  we  shall  make  thee  our  sister,  give  thee  cattle 
to  enjoy  your  excellent  vagina  (subhaga  bhajama  ;  9).  Sarama  : 
I  crave  not  brotherhood  or  sisterhood  •  manly  (  Indro  — Gk, 
andros\  wise  (vidur)  and  terrible  (ghorah)  Angirasas  (Ancharius*, 
desirous  of  your  cattle,  have  sent  me  }  hence  into  distance,  ye 
Panis  go.  Vasa  Asvya  (Sarmatian  Asioi^Russ.  Aasi  — Asvaka, 
Asvasena  ;  8,4t3)  :  Vasa  Asvya  received  from  glorious  'Parthian 
(Prithusravas)  Kanita  (Skt.  kshanitr  =  canal  maker)  steeds, 
kine  and  camels  (ii)  •  also  a  hundred  from  Dasa  (Daci)  Balbutha 
and  Taruksha  (Turks  ;  Kahlana  describes  Kanishka  of  Taruksha 
race  ,  Sakas,  Hunas  and  Kushanas  were  Turkish. 22).  Now  this 
stately  dame  (sya  yoshana,  perhaps  the  queen  of  the  conquered 
king),  adorned  with  ornaments  of  gold  is  brought  to  Vasa  Asvya 
(33).  A  Greco-Baktrian  coin  of  Kanita  of  2Qd  century  B.C.  has 
been  found  in  the  Oxus  region.  In  a  battle  on  the  Hariyapia 
(Hariob  — Harappa\  Parthava  Abhayavartin  Chayaman  over- 
threw Varasikha  (Sarmatian  Borusci  =  Poruaci  — Prussians  ;  on 
the  Yavyavati  (Zhob),  Turvasas  (Tauri-Bessi  ;  Zd.  Turahya  ;  Yt. 
17.15:  Tura  has  asu-aspa  — swift  horses  "-Turuska,  nomadic  Tauri 
•■  Turanian  Scyths)  were  taken  prisoners  by  Prastoka  Srinjaya 
(Zaranka  of  Darius).  Dairavata  Abhayavartin  Chayaman, 
having  many  young  wives,  mighty,  a  great  emperor  (vadhumato 
maghava  mahyam  samrat)  gave  JBharat-Vajas  two  wagon  loads 
of  damsels  and  20  cows  (6.27,5-8)  .  Mudgala  (Magelli-Moggali) 
advanced  towards  Magadha  (Monghyr— Mudgala-giri  ;  Mogga- 
liana  in  Rajagir  of  Moggali  descent)  being  emboldened  by 
marrying  Indrasena,  the  heroic  daughter  of  Damayanti  and 
Nala  of  Kasi  — Kassite,  Akkad.  Kasoe)  descent.  Indrasena 
Mudgalani  was  a  daring  charioteer  (X. 139,2).  Dasas  (Dacis, 
=«  Soducene  ;  Divo  Daso,  Su  Dasa  )  occupied  the  territory  called 
Pancala,  after  their  original  native  place  Pantalia.  To  offer 
resistance  to  the  aggressive  imperialism  of  Su-Das  (Sodas 
Kalmasa-pada  who  also  occupied  Ayodhya  territory  ;  according 
to  MBh  1,30  5-16,  Sesha  (^Sses),  Vasuki  (Uzbeg),  Karkotaka  (Kar 
Kitans),  Kalmasa  (Sodas  Kalmas  is  also  found  in  a  Mathura 
inscription).  Aryaka  (Arsaces),  Takshaka  (Tocharis),  Asvatara 
(Asoi).  Ugraka  (Ugri,  Hun  Uigurs).  Uraga  (Urgi),  Nahusa 
(Nassi,  Deva  Nahusa  — Dionysus),  Kauravya  (Kors),  Tittiri 
(Tatars),  Dhananjaya,  Dhritarastra,  Tuji  (Tajiks)  were  included 
among  Saka  Nagas),  a  confederacy'  was  formed  of  1.  Simyu 
(of  Dans,  Zd.  Danu,  Gk.  Danoi)  ;  2.  Turvasa  =  Tauri- 
Bessi ;  3.  Matsya  =  Mattiaci  ;  4.  Bhrigus-Bryges-Phrygios, 
5.     Druhyus -Durhani- Druse  -  Dorus  ;   6.   Paktha8  =  Paktan  = 


RIGVEDA  9 

Tictones  ;  7.  Bhalanas=- Bantu-speaking  Balong.  8.  Alinas 
—  Sauro  Matae  Alani,  an  allied  Ossete  clan  — 0.  I'ers.  Alaiuan  — 
Alana  of  the  Chinese  Han  period;  9.  Sibis  — Sabaeans-=  Sibi 
Kekayas  of  N.  W.  P  ;  10.  Vishanins  (Hainitic  Bisharin 
of  Bejas-Bissayis)  ;  11.  Vaikarna  =  Vehrkana  of  Fargs. 
1.  12  —  Vai-kana  of  Darius  Behistan  inscription  =  Varka  m 
Nakesh  Rustam  inscription  of  Saka  Hauraa- Varka  — Vrikas  and 
Varkeya  in  Panini's  Ayudhajivi  Sanghas  =  Slav.  Varecks. 
Varangians  =  Varciani  ;  12.  Kabashas  (Kalasha  Kafirs, 
authors  of  X,  30  88^;  13.  Anus  of  Sumer  of  Anau  origin; 
14,  Puru-=Purash  Khatti  —  Khet  =  Hittites  regarded  as  Kolchir 
Scyths  by  Herod.  2.  104.  15.  Bheda  (Bedawi  =  Bedouin  ; 
16.  Ajas-Ham.  Aja  or  Parth.  Azes  ;  17.  Sifjrus  =  Sigrians  ; 
38.  Yakshus  -  Yaksha  =  Yeshkin  speaking  8hina  =  Yuechi  ; 
(Nagyris  are  half  and  half  Yeshkuin  and  Shina)  ;  1^.  Sambara  — 
•Cymbry  7.  18,  6—  7.  Pi  (very)-]avana  (enerj^etici  Su-Das 
(Sudra  Paijavana,  MBh.  12,  38-10)  became  victorius  and  in 
gratitude  gave  Parasaras  (Parsirae).  Satyatu=  Saktpi  -  Sogdi,  and 
Vasisthas  (Varisti)  200  cows,  two  chariots  full  of  damsels,  carried 
by  four  well  trained  horses,  decorated  with  pearls  '7.  18.  2l-2cJ). 
Bhargava  Uttanka,  jamata  (Zd.  zamatar  ,  Gk.  games=»to 
marry;  gametes  -  husband  ;  gametis  —  wife)  of  Saradvant 
(Sardones)  and  Ahalya  (of  Ahala  gens),  when  returnmg  with 
a  pair  of  bejewelled  valuable  earrings  from  Madayanti  and  her 
consort    Saudasa    Kalmasapada,    he   met   on   his    way    Airavata 

Kakshivati  Ghosha  rajnauce  duhiia  =  As.  dohtor=-OHG  Tohter  x.  40,5. 
daughter  of  king  to  Asvini  :  Who  brings  you  to  bed  like  the  widow 
(vidhava  =  Ital.  vedova  =  Zd  vidova  =  Lat.  vidua  =  Goth.  widuo-Russ. 
vdova)  her  devara  Lat.  devir,  levir  =  OSlav.  devari  -  Lith.  deweris  =  Gk. 
daer),  the  maiden  her  lover  fmaryam  -  Lat.  maris  ;  Fr.  marie  =  bridegroom) 
to  spin  (copulate  by  to  and  fro  movements  as  in  spinningi  in  a  standing 
posture  (sadhastha)  x,  40.  2  Ko  vam  sayutra  vidhaveva  devaram 
maryam  na  yosha  krinute  sadhastha.  To  both  of  you  o  Asvins.  as  bees  trust 
their  honey  in  their  mouths,  so  a  maiden  in  her  utter  abandon 
(nishkrtam  =  venery)  ;  yuvor  ha  maksh^  pary  Asvina  madhu  asa  (Lat.  os) 
bharata  nishkritatn  na  yoshana,  x.  40.  6.  We  know  not,  tell  us,  how 
a  youth  sows  [ksheti]  within  the  con  (yoni  =  Gk.  gyne.  Lit.  cunnus. 
Fr.  con.)  of  a  maiden  We  crave  o  Asvins  a  beloved  bright  (priya 
usriyasya)  virile  man's  (^vrishabhasya)  semen  to  enter  into  our  enclosure 
(vagina)  i  na  tasya  vidraa  tad  ushu  pra  vocata  yuva  ha  yad  yuvatyah 
ksheti  yonishu  ;  priyosriyasya  vrishabhaya  retino  grih.im  siamemav  nl  tod 
usmasi  X,  40.  11.  A  maiden  has  been  called  a  fertile  field  for  sowing 
seeds  for  progeny  Av.  12.  2.  14,  Manu  9  3i.  and  in  Koran  2.  22  your 
women  are  your  plowland,  Ar,  harth.  A  very  ardent  fertile  field  has  this 
woman  come  (.atmanityar  vara  nariyamagan)  ;  in  her  here  o  men 
scatter  seeds  (tasyo  naro  vapat  vijamsyam.  she  shall  give  birth  to  progeny 
for  you  from  her  belly,  bearing  the  exuded  sperm  of  the  male  (sa  vah 
prajam  janayad  vakshana  bhyo  vibhrati  dugdamrishaohasya  (a5s  =  vrisha, 
Vrishava  -  bull  for  male)  retah  Av.  14.  2.  14. 


10  THE  LITERABY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Sarpa  Karus  (AIBh.  Airavafca  Kauravya  Ulupi-Ulpia  gens, 
MBh.  1,207,18;  14,56—57);  Sodas  Kalmasa  was  defeated  by 
the  combined  forces  of  Patrasaras  (Parsirae),  Saktris  (Sogdisi, 
Kusas  (Karaites*,  Asmikas  (SoQiaka,s  =  Conii)  ;  and  Dasarathas 
(Dassaretae).  Madayanti  and  her  infaati  son  Sarva-Karman 
—  Ritupacna  were  enslaved  by  Parasaras.  Somikas  became- 
close  associates  with  GoSamas  (4, 158).  Kakshi-van  (Gakshu  = 
Czec;h  =  Poa3s  Ghekka  ;  Ir.  Kaikiwu3  =  Kakas  in  MBb  8,9,94  ; 
Khakas  of  the  Kirghiz  =•  Kak,  Toki  =  Turkish  Doghri  =  Dogra 
Hun  tribes)  defeated  king  (rajuo)  Dasaratha  though  he  was 
uuited  with  their  princess  Kaikayi,  and  carried  away  many 
cattle  and  damsels  and  many  necklaces  (l,12d.2— 5),  Ghoaha 
Kakshivati  (X,  3^,2—4)  calls  Asvins- Gemini,  later  Aries, 
Samirian  'Sivanu,  Asivau,  N^satyas  (Khabti  Na-sa-at  at-tiya- 
Finno-Qgrian  Mastasijai  who  rescued  Tugra  (Abyss.  Tigre) 
from  drowning,  and  reinforced  Gy^wana  (Sabini).  Dasarathas 
and  Putrus  ware  defeated  by  the  combined  forces  of  Bharatas 
(AS.  Brittas  =  Lat.  Britti-Fr.  Breton  =  Brython)  and  Kusikas 
(Kosik,  a  Hun  tribe),  and  Bharatas  became  the  lords  of  the 
people  (3,23,  2 — 4',  and  Bharata-varaa  has  been  named  after  them. 

Lopamudra  to  Agastya   (/Egisthus),    1.79'4  :     Neglected    by 
my    bull    (virile    loveri,  libido   has     overpowered   me,   thrilling 
my    every    organ.      Agastya  :       Impatient    Lopamudra,    enjoy 
now   your   steady   man   who   will   remove  your  (sexual)  tension. 
Dardhacyuta,   y^o    Idhmavaha  =  Idomenus  of  Grete.     Ikshvaku 
X,   60,4  =  Gk.     Achaioi  =  Lat   Achaeus,     Achivi-ZEqui   of  Anes 
valley.    Aksu    of    the  Hi  region -Pali     Okkaka.       Narya=»Nara 
(1.64-6)=  Neri.      Yadu   (Yuti- U-Tan)   Ugradeva=  Ugrian    lord, 
I,i56,l8.     Atrayas    receive    gifts    from    the    king    of    Kusamas, 
6  30,14  =  Rusiniak  =  Little   Russians   or  Rachan  of  W  Caucasus. 
Kutsa    (Kutzo-Vlachs)    invokes   the   aid    of   Indra-^f Andhra    or 
Andi  of   E    Gaucasus)    against    Dasa    (Daci)    and    Arya   (Kelto- 
Germanic    Arii-Arae    of    Armenia)    who    are     called     godless 
(X,  383).     Indra   rejoiced   with  Usane  (Ausones)  Kavye  (i,51'll 
=  Zd.    Kavan,     Kavye,     Kavi,     meaning   king).       To    Ajigarta 
(Jadzwings,   Jazyge,    a  Sarmatian    tribe,    is    ascribed    1.2 1.     To 
Sunahsepa  — Gynoscephaloe,    an    allied    tribe    is    ascribed     9.3. 
Sunahsepa,  l,2b'7  :   i\Iay   our  dear  vispati  (Lith.   wiespats  ;  Lett. 
wisis  =  guests  =  0 Slav,     gaspoda,   ghostipati=-Goth,     gastefaps  = 
g03tipati  =  ouo  who  feeds  and  protects  guests -=»  chieftain  ;vispatni, 
3  29-L.     Letts     had     a     god     of     hospitality -Geroklis)   be   oar 
priest,  pleasant  and  choice-worthy.  Marica-Lig.  Marisci,  Marici, 
y,ld,9-U  :      Where    desires    are  fulfilled,    make   me   immortal  in 
that  glorious  paradise   which   is    more   alluring  than  heavens  i9). 
Where  instantaneously  cravings  are  satisfied,   there   is   perpetual 
fountain    of   soma  drink,  there  are  feasts  and  festivals,  pleasures 
and  merriments,  make    me   immortal  there  (10k     Where  hearts' 
longings   are   in    no   time  enjoyed  and  there  are  planty  of  feasts 


RIQVKDA  12 

(vrata  =  Zd.  urvatem-Gk.  eortei  and  festivities,  make  me 
immortal  there  (11).  Aja  Midhas  (4,43-44)- Agamt-de.s  from 
whose  settlements  Ajmere  has  been  named  ;  Dvi  Midha8=> 
Diomedes  ;  Priya  Midhas  (X.  75)- Priamides,  8al<a  puta  (6); 
Brihasp-iti  (Breuci- Brahui-lord,  X,  13,  '2,5,7.  Gothama  V;lma- 
deva  4,5-4"2  :  Savitri,  you  produce  immortality  lamntatvam 
suvaai)  of  giving  existence,  life  succeeding  life  ladid  damanam 
Savitar  vy  urnusbe  nucina  jivita).  Angirasa  8,9l'6- Ancha- 
riu3  :  Stimulate  0  Savitr  iSubigus,  Eoman  god  of  wedding 
night),  stimulate  0  Savitri  vaginal  enjoyment  (h  savam 
Savitur  yatha  bhagasyeva  bhujim).  Aruna  (J'Ltruscan  Aruns 
or  Arunci)  Vaitahavya  (X,  91).  Kulmalabarisha  Sailushi  (X, 
126;  Keltic  Salassi).  Matsya  =»  Mattiaci  invoke  the  aid  of 
Kshatrians  (Khattis)  and  Ugra-putre  (Ugri- Hun  Ugrians,  b.Gl'l  ; 
11).  Ugra,  X.a7,l2.  Manu  (Manus  of  the  Admiralty  Ilea  are  puri- 
tans and  they  pierce  the  lobes  of  the  ears  at  the  initiation  cere- 
mony like  the  Brahmins  •  but  more  likely  Cretan  Minos  =  Egypt, 
Meni.  Min,  Menes-Ger.  Mannus.  a  generic  name  for  the 
Mediterranean  race)  Tapasa  (X,  83—84).  Andhigu  (Andkhui  = 
Andhaka^Andhra)  Syavasvi  (9 — 101).  Asanga  (a,l,31 1  =  Asena 
of  the  fliung-nu  clan.  Varuni  -  Viruni  (7,19):  "Thou  O 
Indra.  gavest  help  to  Kutsa  (Kutzo-Vlacbs  Armunes-Koca 
Valoch  =  Valuchi  ;  Kaca  ;  Arjuneyas  — Hun  Ki-tsu  -.  Vahlikas  ; 
thus  aiding  Arjuneya,  thou  didst  subdue  to  him  both  Kuyava 
and  Dasa  (Daci)  Sushna  (2).  Thou  didst  send  to  sv^ift  death 
Dasyu  (^Daci),  Cumuri  i  Cymry -Cimmerii)  and  Dhuui  (Danu 
Danoi  ;  4i.  Danu  (Danava=  Danoi  ;  X,  120,6).  India,  destroy 
brunet-comflexioned  (pisanga)  fearful  Pisacim(  — Pae8ici  = 
Pashai  on  the  Chitral  =  Pi6aca8  of  Kashmir)  and  Eaksho 
(Kugusci-Rakshasas)  1,133-5.  Kutsam  Arjuneyam  Ev.  1,112,23. 
Aitareya  Br.  (8,U)  :  In  the  northern  region,  the  kingdoms  of 
Uttara-Kuru  (Ottorokorra  of  Ptolemaeus  =  East  Turkestan  = 
Korasan)  and  Uttara  Madra  (Media)  beyond  the  Himalayas 
are  imperial  structures  (etasyam  udicyam  disi  ye  ke  ca  parena 
himvantam  Janapada  Uttara  Kurava  Uttara  Madra  ithi 
vair/ijy  yaiva  te  vishicyante).  Gandhamadana— Gadmanomand 
(majestic)  in  Chv^arzim.  In  Kaushitaki  Upanished  (l,-ra\ 
Brahmaloka  is  in  Aral  Sea  (Aro  Hradat,  Balkash  (Vijaya)  and 
Hi  (nadilyo)  region  (etasya  Brahmalokasya  Aro  Hrado 
muhnrta  yoshtiha  Vijoya  nadilyo).  It  seems  that  many  of  the 
wandering  tribes  that  reached  India  even  in  the  Rgvedic 
age  through  South  Russia  and  Central  Asia  came  under  the 
Scythian  and  Hun  influences,  as  Achaeans,  Gothones,  Varisti. 
Vagienni,  Ugri,  for  not  only  we  find  the  mention  of  Saka  puta 
(X.  132,0),  but  the  Buddha  was  known  as  Sakya  (Ir.  Sak:i 
=  Chin  Sacae  =  Scythian)  Muni  Gotama  of  Ikshvaku  =  Okkaka 
descent,  Mahavira  as  Ugga-pQt  amongst  the  Vajjis,  and  Mallas 
(Karkota    Malava  ;  also  Pallava- Pahlava=  Parthava),    Licchavi 


12  THE  LITERARY  HiSTOEY  OF  ANOIBNT  INDIA 

(Niu-chi)   and   Andhras     (Andkhui)     of     Vassitti     Gotfca     (Ger. 
Gautscher  — Fr.    coterie,    Pers.   gohar  —  of   noble   descent).     The 
expressions    and    similies   seems   to  be  common  to  some  families 
or    borrowed    from    one    to    the   other  :     apo   na    pravata     yatih 
(as   waters   go    down    a  hill)  9,24.2 -8'6, 34  ;  Vajayanto  rafcha  iva 
(like     chariots     winning     a     race)    8'3 15  =9,67,17  ;  Utso    deva 
hiranyayah   (0    god,   a  spring  of  gold)  8,61,6 -9,107,4  ;  Samudra 
iva   pinvate    (swells    as   the    sea)     l,8"7 '=8,i2'5  ;     Yarti     vacam 
ariteva   navam   (let   his   voice   come   down   like  oars   of  a  boat) 
2,4ri '=9,95"2  ;  Gavo  na  yavasesva  (like    cows     in     the     barley 
field)     1,91.13-8.92.12;   Vatsain    gavo  na    dhenavah     (like     the 
calf   for   its   mother)  6,45.23 —9,1 '-^'2  :  Tarn  arvantam  na  sanasim 
{Uke   a   successfal    racehorse)     4,16"6  =  8,102.12  ;  Jayeva     patya 
usati     suvasah     (like     the      wife      putting     on     fine     garments 
to      please      her      husband)        4  2,3  =  1,124,7;     Vadhuyur    iva 
yosanam   (like     the     bridegroom  longing    for   his    bride)     3*5-2*;-i 
=  3,62'8;  Yosha    jiram    (^Tib.    djarhwar  )  iva    priyam    (as  to  a 
damsel   her   lover   is    dear)   9'S2  6  ;    Jaram  na  kanyanushota  (as 
kanya  =  Zd    kanya  — Gk       kainos  =  Buss.    kuna,    kunka    in    the 
sense  of  youthful  maiden,    closely    embraces  her    lover)  9  553  ; 
Vidhaveva    devaram,     maryam     na     yosha    krriute  sadhastha  a 
(as  a  widow  induces   her  husband's    brother,   maiden  her  gallant 
to  her  congress  (X,  40,2)  ;  Yuvor  ha  makshi.    madhv  asa  bharata, 
niskritam  na  yoshaaa  (like  bses  extracting  honey  in  their  mouth, 
so    a    maiden    in    her    venery)    X.   40,6.    Gritsa    Madas  whose 
family    book    is    the    2nd    Maadala     pay    very   little    attention 
to  Asvins.     Visv'^mitras  of   3cd    Mandala    worship    Indra     and 
Marufcs.     Gotama     Vamadevas   of    4th    Mandala   regard    Rbhus 
as    important.    Atreyas    of  5th    Mandala   pay  some  attention  to 
Maruts,    but    regard    Cusna     instead    of    usual    Vrtra    as     the 
enemy   of  Indra  ;  Bharadvajas   of   6th    Mandala  have  Pushan  as 
their  favourite  and  they  are  little  concerned  with    Asvins,  except 
in   one  hymn  (6'6  6);    Rudra  or  Maruts  are  indifferent  to  them. 
Vasisthas    of    7th    Mandala  are  devotees  of  Varuna  and  Vishnu. 
Puru  ravas    (the    thunderer    of    the    Purus)    to   Urvasi    (Urva  — 
Arvii   maiden    at   the    end    of   the   contractual     period    like   the 
Arab     Mota   marriage ;     there     was    an   ancient     Arba     state  ; 
In  868  B.C.   the  Assyrian  inscription  of  Shalmanser    III  records 
the      defeat    of     the   rebellious     princeling       of     Gindibu— the 
Aribu   Arabu— Urbi.  the   name   of    the    Arab,    who   contributed 
1000    camels) X,   95:  My     cruel-hearted   wife,    tarry    a    little; 
let   us   exchange  our   views   for    a     while    (I).     Urvasi  i  Thrice 
daily    didst   thou    screw    me     vigorously   with   the    thrusts    of 
thy  Vaitasa  (Fr.    vit-Gail.   bot)  though    I   was   irresponsive  to 
it  ;  Pururavas,   1  simply  yielded   to    thy   ardor  ;  and   thou  didst 
play  lord  =  hero   over  my   body    (5).     Puru-ravas  :  Then    he  will 
embrace  death  and    fierce  rapacious  wolves  will   eat  him   up  (14). 
Urvasi;  Paru-ravas,   die    not;     do   not    destroy    thyself;    with 


BIGVEDA  13 

women  (strainAni)  there  can  be  no  lasting  comradeship 
(sakhyani)  ;  hyena's  heart  they  have  (X,  95,  16).  Matsya 
Puranam  l20l.  2ti)  :  Urvasi  is  an  excellent  rider  (of  the  reverse 
posture)  with  full  moon  face,  fine  brows  and  blue  lotus  eyes 
(vararoha  Urvasi  dristendu  mukhim  suvrum  nila-uiraja  locanam). 

Rigvedic  age  has  been  over-estimated.  For  Rigvedic  and 
Avestic  hymns  and  Achiumenian  inscriptions  are  composed 
in  closely  related  dialects  which  are  morphologically  in  the 
same  stage  of  development  and  their  accidence  and  syntax 
show  features  of  decay.  No  doubt  there  are  phonetic  changes. 
But  the  vocabulary,  the  formation  of  words  ,  syntax,  similarity 
of  33  nature  gods  correspond  pretty  closely.  Zarathustra  who 
composed  the  Gathas  was  patronized  by  Vistaspa,  the  father  of 
Darius  (521-486  B.  C),  Xsaytia  Hakamanasiya. 

Vistaspa,  the  Kava  (kava=»king)  of  Magai  (Yaa  46. 14. -Magus  in 
Achaemenian  inscription,  Gk.  Magoi-Ir.  Margu  =  Skt.  Maga,  Mriga) 
patronized  Jarathustra,  a  Maga,  who  speaks  of  the  great  (maza)  Maga 
Brotherhood  in  Yast  29  11.  Hutaosa  was  the  queen  of  Vistaspa  and 
Humaya  was  her  daughter.  Yast  13,  139.  Zaratustra  had  three  wives. 
His  tirst  wife  was  daughter  of  Frasaostra.  niece  of  Jamaspa,  attaches 
to  the  court  of  Vistaspa.  And  she  bore  to  Jaratustra  one  son  Isatvastra 
(one  who  rules  the  pasture)  and  three  daughters— Frenil^Rv.  1'112.  10; 
Av.  6.89.2  Preni  =  love)  ;  Triti  =  Rv.  9.  146  sriti -clinging  .•  Pouru- 
cista  (very  well-mannered)  the  youngest  daughter  became  the  wife 
(naizi  =  Skt  nari)  of  Jamaspa  (Yast  53.  3),  brother  of  Frasaostra,  and 
Jamaspa  succeeded  Jarathustra  as  the  leader  of  Maga  Brotherhood. 
Jarathustra's  second  wife  was  a  widow  and  she  bore  him  two  sons— Hvara- 
cithra  (reflection  of  the  sun)  and  Urvatat  Nara  (fertile  man)  Yast  51.  17). 
The  third  wife  was  Hvovi  (yast  13.  139)  and  is  called  in  Yt  16  learned 
(vithusi  =  Skt.  vidushi)  who  believed  and  accepted  her  husband  as  a  prophet, 
and  is  mentioned  Hvovya  as  conya  Fravasin  Yazmaide-we  revered  the 
Fravrsi  of  the  holy  Hvovi.  After  Jarathustra's  death  she  married  another 
man  and  became  mother  of  three  sons. 

Astyages  (Ir.  Arshtivaga  =  Ak.  Istuvega  =  Med.  Rsti-vega,  lance  hurler), 
successor  of  Cyaxares  =  Uvakshatra,  had  a  daughter  Mandane  =  Manda 
princess,  who  was  given  in  marriage  to  Cambyses  I  (Kambuja  chief;  of 
Persua,  and  Manadne  became  the  mother  of  Cambyses  II  and  Smerdis  (Ir. 
Bardiya  =  Med.  Brzya  ;  in  another  version,  of  Cyrus  (Kurus),  who 
married  Cassadane.  daughter  of  Hakhamanisiya  Pharnaspes.  and 
Kambujia  and  Bardiya  were  their  sons.  And  they  were  rightful  heirs  as 
Astyages  had  no  male  issue  {Herod  1.  107-9).  Visatarus  Spitaspa  = 
Pourusaspa  of  the  famous  rich  and  distinguished  Spitama  (the  ivhiU) 
family  of  Raga  =  Teheran  had  a  sister  Dugdova  (one  who  milks  cows), 
and  they  were  married  according  to  the  custom  of  the  country  ;  and 
Dugdova  became  the  mother  of  Megabarnes  =■  Baga  -  havarmah  ;  some 
also  say  of  Zarath  ustra  as  well.  Pourusapa  married  again  the  Median 
heiress,  her  elder  sister  Mandane  having  died  in  the  meantime.  Amyhia=- 
Aimytes  Humov"i  who  at  the  age  of  17  in  596  B.  C.  gave  birth  to 
Spitake  =  little  Spitama  viso  -  puthro  (heir  to  the  family  of  Spitama) 
Ztrstr  (graffiti  on  the  Mannean  rock  tomb  of  Fakrika  in  Aramaic  letters  of 


il4  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIBNT  INDIA 

Sama  (Saman«Gk.  ymnos«Lat.  hymnus.  song  of  praise, 
-hymn)-veda  ( «=  Sandansi-Zd.  zend  =  chants  in  chorus) 
consists  of  1549  stanzas,  mostly  taken  from  the  Ninth 
Mandala  of  the  Rigveda  for  the  ritual  (OSlav,  8eider==  magic) 
performance  of  Soma  and  some  from  Eighth  Mandala,  except 
only  75  original  Kiks  put  to  the  chanting  tune.  There  are 
only  two  recensions  ;  Kauthumi  is  prevalent  in  Northern 
and  Western  India,  and  R^nayani  in  South  India.  Soma 
was  not  only  the  Soma  drink,  made  of  the  flowering  tops  and 
resins  of  Cannabis  sativa  which  is  an  aphrodisiac  and  stimulant, 
and  a  nourishing  food  when  re-inforced  with  sour  milk 
which  also  contains  about  2-3  p.c.  alcohol  and  Madhu  (^Lith. 
medus  (honey)  =  OSlav.  medu  =  Gk.  methu  =  mead  (honey 
wine),  but  also  its  and  other  herbs'  presiding  deity.  Soma  =■  Sin, 
Babylonian  god  of  agriculture.  There  was  also  Soma  or 
Somaka  clan,  Parthian  Comi.  Hota  — Zd.  zaotar  ;  Atharva  — Zd. 
Atharvan  ;  mantra  =  Zd.  manthra  — Lat.  mentor  =  Fr.  mentir  ; 
Yajna  =  Zd.  Yasna  ;  flhuti  — Zd.  azati -,  Zend  Avesta  —  chanda 
upastha  =  chanting  prayers  while  standing. 


500  B.  C.)  =  Zaratustra,  Kurus  (Cyrus  =  Kuru  =  Sarmatean  Kors  chief  ot 
Hakha  raanisiya  =  Achaemenian^Saka  man  ;  KuruKambojas  were  allied 
mixed  Scythian  -  Ishgazai  —  and  Sarmatian  clans.  Scythians  overran 
Persia,  Iran,  and  W.  Asia  by  626  B.  C.  and  mixed  with  Parsa 
Xsayathya  =  Puru3  Khatti)  of  Susiana  with  the  co-operation  of 
Maraphi,  Maspii,  Parthialici,  Deruscici,  Germanii,  Dai.  Mardi, 
Dropici  and  Sagartii  clans  revolted  against  the  suzerainty  of  Umman 
Manda  Cimmerian  =«Gimirroi  Astyages,  defeated  the  Median  forces  at 
Pasargade  in  553,  had  Astyages  imprisoned,  and  after  capturing 
Egbatana,  became  the  supreme  power  over  Parsa  =  Persia  and  Mada  = 
Media.  And  Kurus  in  order  to  legitimize  his  claim  to  the  xMedian 
throne  married  Amyhia  Humova,  daughter  of  Astyages,  and  wife  of 
Pourusaspa.  And  Medians  =  Madas  were  given  equal  share  in  the  army 
administrative  affairs  with  the  Kurus-Kambujias,  Parsas  and  other 
tribes.  Bat  Lydia  and  Babylon  =  Babirush  jointly  attacked  Kurus  ; 
Kurus  defeated  them  and  Sardis  fell  into  his  hands  in  546,  Babylon, 
Syria  and  Patestine  in  539.  Thus  in  quick  time  an  insignificant  ruling 
tribe  of  Ansar  became  the  dominant  power  of  W.  Asia.  Kurus  met 
his  death  in  the  hands  of  Hauma-Varka  (hemp-wearing)  Saka  Tigra- 
khauda  (pointed  helmet-wearing),  Saka  Tyai  Paradray  Messa  Getae 
in  N.  E.  Parthia  in  530.  And  Kambujia  who  as  the  most  powerful 
ally  of  Kurus  acted  as  regent  at  Sippar  in  Babylonia  occupied  the 
Achaemenian  throne  by  marrying  Hutosa  (Atossa),  the  daughter  of 
Kurus  and  Amyhia  Humova  in  529,  who  was  already  married  to  Kavi 
^noble)  Notara  (nava-tara,  new  line  of  Hakhamanisiya  dvita-parnan  ; 
having  two  branches)  Vistaspa,  Satrap  of  Parthava  at  Tosa.  To 
suppress  some  rebellions  in  W.  Asia,  Kambujia  left  Parsa  in  528  with 
his  powerful  army,  taking  with  him  Vistaspa's  son  Darius,  then  28,  as  his 
-spear-bearer,  and  he  conquered  Egypt  (Mudraya)  525,  and  attacked  Ethopia 
(Kushiya)  and  Libya  (Putaya),  but  failing  to  secure  the  Phoenician 
naval  support  returned   in  523,   keeping     Aryandes    as     his    satrap    in 


RIGVEDA  16 

Soma  Vamsa  was  the  Shera- Semite  race,  to  which 
belonged  Nahus  =  Noa-NaB3i,  Yadu«U-Tan- Yutia,  Haihaya 
=  Hun  Hiao-Hiii,  Sesa  Nfiga- Susinak  of  Anaaii).  Ann  of 
Anau.  Durhyu  — Druse  =  Durban i.  Puru=»  Purush-Khatti  (Hittite), 
all  Armenoids,  who  reached  India  through  Baluchistan,  Mohenjo- 
daro  and  Harappa. 

Egypt.     During   his  absence  in  VV.  Asia  and    Egypt,  Kambujia   appointed 

his   favorite   Magu    Gomata    as    his     regent   in      Persia,    and    Babylonia, 

and  his  brother   Smerdis  was  in   charge  of    Mtdia,    Armenia  and  Cadusa. 

as  in  the   time   of   Kurus.     But  he  had    asked   his    cup-hearer    Frasaspa. 

brother  of   Haugavi.  the   third   and    favorite   wife   of   Zaratustra,    to    kill 

Smerdis  secretly  which   order    he  faithfully   carried    out.     Gomata    as  the 

administrative   head    and    commander-in-chief     became   very    popular    by 

remitting   taxes  for  3  years  and    exempting   peoples    from    military  levies. 

succeeded  cleverly  to  impersonate  Smerdis  that  a  large  part  of  Parsa-Mada 

and   Babirush     revolted     against    Kambujia,      and    Gomata   became   the 

virtual  successor  of  Kurus  for   8  months   by   proclaiming    himself  as   king 

on  March  11,  522.   and  by  April  14   declared   as    king   of    Babirash,    and 

marrying  Hutosa,  wife    of  Kambujia  and   daughter   of  Kurus.     Alarmed, 

Kambujia  returned  to  Persia  in  522.  questioned  and    doubted    the   fidelity 

of  Faraspa,  and  attacked  the  forces  of  pseudo  -  Smerdis.     But  at  Egbatana 

by  an  accident  Kambujia  pierced   his   own    belly    through    a   dagger   and 

died  soon  in  521.     Gomata    knowing   that    Faraspa,    blessed    with   riches 

(istois  hvarna,   Yt.    51,    18)  would   expose  him   as    the    imposter   usurper. 

began   to  persecute  him,    his    brother   Zamaspa  and    his    sister's   husband 

Spitams  Zarathustra,  though  he   was  his    brother-in-law    (bandva,  Yt.    49, 

l2  =  Skt  bandhava).     Finding  Raga  insecure,  Spitama  Zarathustra  was    in 

■flight,  and    though   Vehviya  =  Vivana,    a   Kavi   (noble)   like    myself  had 

refused  hospitium  to  me.  a  Spitama,  Yt.  51,  12,  yet  Kavi  Vistaspa,    satrap 

of  Parthava,  gave  him  asylum  at  Tosa,  Yt     51.    l6.     Vistaspa   had   a   son 

Spontadata  (Spehendates).     He  with  his  six  adherents,  knowing  Gomata  an 

imposter,  killed  him  in    his    castle  at    Sikayahvates  =  Sikawand  in  Nisa  on 

tenth  of    Bagyadis  =  Sept.  29,  522  B.  C.  (Beh.  13),  exposed   his   perfidity, 

and  as    there  was   no    better   rigtitful   claimant    to    the    Hakhamanisiya  = 

Achaemenian     throne,    he    assumed    the   royal    title      of   Darya -vahu- 

manah  =  Darya-Vahu  =  Dariu9    who    commands  right    will,    and    married 

his  own  mother   Hutosa  and   her  sisters  Roxana,  Artystone,    all   the    three 

daughters   of  Kurus,    Phaedyme   who   like     Hutosa    had   been    wives   to 

Kambujia,   and    then     to   Gomata,    impersonating     Brzya,     and    Parmys 

daughter  of   Brzya.    Hutosa   calls  herself  in  Yt     15,   az:ita   (jnati  -  agnate) 

and  puru-brathra    (Skt.   vartr  -  Pali,  bhattar- Lat.    fututor  -  Fr.  foututeur, 

Beng.  vahu  bhatari,  having  many  brother  husbands),   as   she   was    married 

to  (1)  Vistaspa.  i2  )Kambujia,  (3)  Maga  Gomata  as  Brzya,  (4)  Darius.  .\n6. 

her  son   with   Darius,    Khshyarsha  =  Xerxes- succeeded    Darius.      Darius 

made    Vadhra-bara    Prasaspa,  brother  of  Zorathuras  wife    Haugavi,    the 

cup-bearer     of     Kambujia     his  mace -bearer    and   in    520   proclaimed 

Zoroastrianism  as  his  own   and     state   religion.     But     deva-worsiiippers 

revolted,    and  with    diiticulty    the   rebellion    was   suppressed    by    Xerxes 

who   interdicted   deva-worship.     But  Artaxerxes  II  in  590    B.  C.   invokes 

Mithra     (Mitra),     Vargnahya  =  Hittite    Varagna  =  Vrthagna.    Nahathya- 

Nasatya,  Anahita  Rti  ('Rati,  Yt  17),  as  goddess  of  fertility,  Usi  in  Yt.l.  61 


16  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

According    to   the   Puranas,    Hiranya    Kasipu   (the   Golden: 
Horde- Kipchak)    and  Kalki   (Khalka,   Kalkai    ia     their   Kalkai, 
dulimbi       chugungosa  —  the      banners    of      Khaika      Mongols), 
Kiratas  (Keraits  who  were  supreme  in  Mongolia,  and  during  the 
Kin  dynasty  absorbed  by   the   Chinese),   Kalamukha    (Kalmuks), 
Murmi   of    Nepal,    Maran   of   South   India    (Mranmar  occupied 
Irawadi  valley   in  first  century  A.  D.  and  after  whom  it  is  called 
Burma),  all  IScythianized  are  mentioned.     Hamitic  tribes  Tigre, 
Shangallas,  Agaws,  Gallas,  Mahai,  Tumal,  Kikiyu,  Shilluk.  Doma, 
Beli,  Baganda,  Anga,    Banga,  Berber,  Zandeh,  Copts  (Ar.  Qoft  — 
—  Guptos)  have  become    Tugra.  Singhala,  Gaya,  Goyala.  Mahar, 
Tamil,  Kekaya,  Silaka,  Bhils,  Bagai.  Anga,  Bhangi,  =.Bangali  of 
UP—  Baaga,  Barbara,  Sindhu=  Hindu  and  Guptas.  Surya  vamsa 
consisted  of  Sauro  Matae  —  Sarmatian  tribes  that    reached    India 
through   Central  Asia  like  Ikshvakus  (Achaoi  =  Ak3u  of  C.  Asia), 

=  Usha,  Eos,  as  goddess  of  handicraft  Huti.  Vi -dev-dad=  Vendidad. 
injunctions  and  incantations  against  devas  when  they  became  evil 
spirits,  is  of  Arsacid  period,  (250  B-C.  -  225  A  D.  Zaratustra  passed  away 
in  47th  year  of  his  religious  organization  at  the  age  of  77  years  and 
40  days  569-492  B  C.  His  youngest  daughter  Spitami  Hecataspa 
Purucista  was  married  to  Jamaspa  II  Yt.  53.  3  ;  a  grand  son  Rvatonara 
Aparazata  (unconquerable;  in  Yt.  13. 

Kshatriya  =  Zd.  Xsayatia  =  ruler,  king.  Inscription   of  Darius  555  -  486 
of  Susa  :  Adam  Darayavaus  Xsayatia  vazarka  xsayatia  xsayatianam  xsayatia 
Dahyunam  xsayatia     ahzaha   bumiya   vistaspahya   pusa    Hakamanisiya  = 
I  am  Darius,  great  king,  king  of  kings,  king  of  Dahaes,  king  of  this   land, 
son  of  Vistaspa,  the   Achaemenian. 

The  sitting  brachycephallic  steatite  portrait  statue  with  prominent 
nose  and  trifoil  patterns  round  his  chest  is  a  Shaman  (Suta  bard  =  Soyot). 
The  bronz  nude  statuette  of  a  danseuse  with  long  hands  and  legs,  thick 
lips,  hair  worn  in  short  crimped  curls  is  the  Hamite.  The  Hamitic  type 
crania  Nos.  6,  7,  19  of  Mohenjodaro  is  long  headed  with  moderate  to 
high  vault,  moderate  to  narrow  face,  moderate  to  narrow  nose  with  high 
orbit.  At  Tepe  Hissar  there  were  eleven  crania  (PI.  95),  classified  as 
Negroid,  and  they  may  be  compared  to  Chanhudaro.  Chanhudaro  skull 
is  dolichocranic,  chamecranic  and  chamonhinic.  A  broad  flat  face 
which  becomes  disharmonic  when  compared  with  long  low  skull  (PI.  96) 
which  leads  to  a  comparison  with  Mongoloid  Eastern  Asiatic  type.  It 
may  be  compared  with  a  female  crania  from  Tepe  Hissar  and  with  female 
Naga  or  Burmese  crania.  The  Chanhudaro  skull  verges  upon  the 
Fastern  Asiatic  type  only  in  general  appearance  of  facial  breadth. 
It  seems  to  be  a  blend  of  Hamitic  with  Mongoloid  (E.  Mackey 
Chanhu-Dara  Excavations  1935).  In  Europe  the  Australoid  is  known  is. 
Neanderthal  man.  Aurignacian  is  the  Negroid  who  introduced  polychrome 
painting,  some  kinds  of  music,  mecklaces  of  mollusks,  use  of  bow  and 
arrow  which  brought  the  doom  of  Neanderthalers  who  were  armed  only 
with  sticks,  stone  clubs  and  boomerangs.  Magdalenian  is  the  Mongoloid 
who  invented  the  bone  needle  about  25000  years  ago,  tanned  skins  and 
sewing  them  together. 


YAJURVKDA  If 

Achokzai  Pathan.  Raghns  (Rugii ->  Scythic  Regii,  north  of 
Taun).  Vaisya  Bhalaudana  i  Mrirk  P.  113,  3!)  =  Be8si).  Visala 
(from  whose  settlement  Vaisali  has  been  named  .  Basilii)  and 
Sauro-Mithili  ;  later  Kuru-Knvis  Rv.  8.  20,  2,^;  8,  22.  'J.I  (  Kora 
and  Krivi-chi  of  Kurland),  Kinnura  Gandharva  'Kimmeroi- 
Cen-Tauri-Gandarae)  and  Saka-Yakaha-Asvaka^Yuechi  Asioi 
—  A98i  =  Asaio"  Asvakan  -Afghan. 

Yajur-Veda  (Zd.  yazaiti  =  Gk.  agos^  =  sacrificial  formulas 
— ha<  two  recensions  — Vajasaneyi  of  the  Vajins  i  Vagienni '  and 
Taittirya  (Tittiii  =  Tatars),  attributed  to  Yajna  Zd  yasnai 
valkya  (Zd.  varecah  =  varcas).  But  the  soma  drinking,  Vajapeya 
(chariot  race),  Rrijasuya  (coronation  ceremony),  particularly 
the  Asvamedha  Yajna  'Fertility  Rite)  are  common  to  both 
(Vaj.  23.  J8:Tait.  7  4.19).  All  these  sacrifices  seem  to  be  of 
Saka  Huna  origin. 


The  king  entered  into  V'ajnasHla„  attended  by  his  four  queens.  After 
Agnihotra.  the  king  lay  between  the  legs  of  his  favorite  wife  without 
resorting  to  sexual  union  with  her  so  that  his  restraint  may  lend  weight 
to  the  success  of  liis  reign.  After  the  horse  (asva  =  Zd.  aspa  =  Lith  aszawa  ; 
ass  =  Ang  Sax  assa=  Lat  asinus  =  onasni  ;  haya  =  Anglo  Sax  ehu  =  Kelt 
ech)  is  slain,  the  chief  queen  (mahisi)  lies  down,  and  its  penis  is  inserted 
into  her  vagina,  and  both  are  covered  under  a  blanket.  The  chief 
queen  .•  O  Ambi,  Ambali,  Ambika  (  the  names  of  accompanying  other 
3  junior  queens,  kumari,  v-Vvata,  parivrikiai,  no  body  copulates  with  me. 
Their  penis  slumbers  even  for  an  excellent  vagina  like  mine,  an  inhabi- 
tant of  Kimpilya  (na  ma  yavati  =  OSlav.  jebati  =  Pol.  jebae  =  Gk  oipeo 
kascana  sasasty  asvakah  suvage— vagina —Kampilya  vasinini'.  O  popular 
lord  of  the  people,  1  invoke  thee,  o  darling  of  thy  beloved,  1  invoke  thee 
(priyanim  twa  priya  paiim  havamahe  )  ;  O  the  most  valuable  treasure 
(nidninam  twa  nidhipatinii,  I  invoke  thee  ;  copulate  with  me  ivasomama;. 
I  have  come  to  thee  for  conception  (aham  jani  garvadhama  19). 
A  dhvaryu  :  I  shall  impregnate  thee.  Mahishi  :  Let  us  then  both  spread 
out  our  four  feet  (ta  uvau  caturah  padah  sampras:irava,  20).  Adhvaryu  : 
The  strong  penis  discharges  the  semen  ;  let  your  uterus  grasp  it  \vnsh  i 
vaji  rctodha  reto  dadhatu  20).  Mahishi  ;  Push  energitically  thy  erect 
penis  towards  the  os  (asang)  ;  this  movement  is  the  life  food  of  women 
(ya  strinam  jiva  bhojanah,  21).  This  little  bird  (the  vulva  covered  with 
black  hair  is  called  Sakuntika  =>  raven;  in  its  movements  is  making 
halag  (sound)  ;  and  being  filled  and  pressed  by  pasas  (Gk.  peos  =  Lith.  pisa ; 
god  Pizius  =  Lascius;  it  is  making  gal-gal  (copulatiug  sound,  22t. 
Adhvaryu  .•  Make  ups  and  downs  of  thy  vulva  like  one  lifting  and 
carrying  a  load  on  his  head  and  thy  vaginal  inside  will  feel  refreshed 
like  a  cool  breeze  (urdhamenamulchra  paya  girau  bharanca  haranniva, 
athasyai  madhyamedhata  site  vate  puna  nniva,  26) 

A  mummified  phallus  of  a  bull  has  been  found  inserted  into  the  vagina 
of  a  princess  of  XI  Dynasty  in  a  temple  at  Deir  El  Bahar.  As  a  fertility 
magic  ancient  Egyptian  women  had  even  sexual  congress  with  goats, 
especially  trained  for  the  purpose  in  the  temple  of  Mcndes.  In  Rome, 
women  had  in  primitive  times  ritual  sexual  connection  with  the  sacred 
ass,  representative  of  God    Pales,   the   ritual   even   observed   by    Roman 

2 


18  THE  LITERAKT  HISTOEY  OF  ANCIENT   INDIA 

Atharva  (Zd.  athravau  =  Lith.  aifcrus^Lat.  atres  atrium, 
ater  =  fire)  Veda  consists  of  magic  formulas,  incantations  and 
soi'ceries  (kL'itya  =  Lith.  kei'tu)  like  those  of  Babylonia  and  the 
Fe«di(?ac^  of  Angiras  (Ancharius)  family.  Aitareya  Be  indicates 
Atharva  by  Angirasa,  while  Satapatha  Br,  Brihad-Arnyaka  and 
Chandogya  (chandansi.  i.e.,  Sama)  Upanishads  mention  only  Rik, 
Sama  and  Yajur.  19th  (l9  6  -  Rv.  X,  90  )  and  '20th  KhanHas  of 
Atharva  are  supplements,  and  20th  book  chiefly  consists  of 
borrowmg  from  the  tenth  Mandala  of  the  Rik,  and  is  not 
found  in  Paippalada  Kashmere  recension.  Yama  and  Yami 
incestuous  dialogue  (Rv.  X.  10 — Av  18  1),  marriage  hymns 
(Rv.    X    ■?5  =  i4th     Khanda)   as    some  funeral  verses  and  about 

matrons  in  BonaDea  festival.  On  a  fresco  in  Pompeii,  Vesta  is  represented 
ridina;  an  ass.  representing  Priapus  and  bearing  a  child  in  her  arms. 
Erotic  dances,  coital  movements,  exposures  of  genitals,  voluptuous 
obscenities  were  also  regarded  as  magics  for  health,  beauty»  for  fertility  and 
fortunes,  warding  off  the  evil  eyes — dus-cakshas.  Kalik  i  Puranam  enjoins 
the  people  in  Sabarostava  on  the  tenth  day  of  the  autumnal  Sukla  Paksha, 
to  sing  loud  leud  songs,  naming  sexual  organs  and  connections  in 
company  of  virgins  and  prostitutes.  During  harvest  festival,  naked  women 
have  to  sing  and  dance  before  the  deity  ;  and  when  the  deity  is  carried 
in  procession,  obscene  songs  in  praise  of  her  and  indecent  jests  are 
customary  by  Asadis.  In  Kerala  during  Puran  festival  of  Bhagavati, 
obscene  songs  are  sung.  At  Cranganore  on  the  night  of  distributing 
Prasadas,  woman  folk  of  certain  families  are  obliged  to  answer  questions 
on  modes  and  manners  of  their  sexual  beliaviour. 

In  Ramiyana  (1.  14,  34-35t  it  is  mentioned  that  in  the  Asvamedha  of 
Dasaratha,  for  obtaining  an  issue,  after  the  sacrificial  horse  was  killed 
with  other  animals,  the  chief  queen  Kosalya  lay  with  the  horse  for  the 
whole  night,  and  then  other  queens  were  united  with  the  horse.  Horse's 
flesh  and  fat  were  offered  as  burnt  offering  to  gods.  I.i  Rigveda  1,  162, 
in  Asvameda.  goat  is  first  sacrificed  and  offered  to  Pushan.  Then  the 
horse  is  killed  and  roasted  in  fire  (  agnina  pacyamanad  abhi  sulam  ) 
upon  a  spit  (1.  162.  fl)  or  cooked  in  a  flesh  cooking  cauldron 
(manspacany^  ukhaya),  Caru  (Irish  coire),  producing  fine  flavor  (surabhir) 
slung  over  fire  by  pot  cooks  (1,  162,  13),  possibly  pottery,  as  it  was 
feared  that  fire  might  break  it  into  pieces  (1,162,  15).  Then  the  cooked 
meat  was  carved  for  distribution  amonst  the  sitting  guests  (1,  162,  12). 
Horse  was  domesticated  about  2003-1500  B.  C.  Russia  in    Kuban  hasin. 

Ea  =  E-Apsa  with  a  fish  on  his  head  was  the  Sumerian  god  of  healing, 
representi.ng  the  healing  qualities  of  the  spring  like  the  Vedic  Apah. 
The  sick  in  Babylonia  was  sprinkled  with  water  as  in  our  sasti  isu  +  asti  = 
=  Gk.  eu  +  esti  =  good  fortune,  Chin,  ouan)  Vacana  to  the  accompanyment 
of  incantantation  for  purification  and  for  exorcion,  the  disease  demons 
being  symbolically  drowned. 

In  Rig  Veda  also  we  find  incantations  to  drive  away  the  malignant  spirits 
Drub  =  Z J.  Druj  =•  Norse  Draug=  AngSax  Dreo^'.  Spells  against  vermins 
Rv.  1,  191  ;  against  yaksmi  X,  163  ;  to  revive  one  apparently  dead 
X.  58,  60  7-12  ;  to  destroy  enemies  X  165,  abortificent  spirits  X,  162  ;  to 
i  I  luce  sleep  5,  55  ;    to  subdue  and  oust  a  co-wife  X,  145. 


ATHARVAVhDA  19 

1200  of  (1000  stanzia  have  been  borrowed  from  the    Rik  Samhita. 
To    Atharvan     Anj,nra3    (fire  kindling    Acchariii8     are    ascribed 
mOot    of    the    hymna.     Others    are    Aruni    (Aruna)   U<ldalaka  *8. 
29  ;  G,    15 1,    Kanva  (Chaones  ;  2,  81,  32  ;  6,  23)  .  Kausika  (Kosik 
6,    117-'.'l  ,    X,    26-86);    Gargya    (Gorgias  ;  6,     49;   19,      7-8); 
Marica   (Marici  ;  7,    t)2-68i;  Gopatha  (Gepidae  ;  19,   25,   47,  4S, 
50);  Sunaka    (Seneca-,    almost   all    of  them  being  the  neighljors 
of   ths    Aacharms.     The.se    sorceries   are    against    anuria    d,  8), 
for   successful    childbirth    (1,    11),    for  spinisterhood  of  a  maiden 
(I,    14=,    a'/ainst   jaundice    (1,    22),    leprosy    (I,    13  21^,    malarial 
fever  ;takman,  1,  2^  •  5,  22  ;  '',J16»,  leucorrhea  ( 5/aua  =  flux.  2,  3, 
a   love    spell    (L.    34',   against     consumption  {Yahsini,    2.8}),  to 
secure    a    husband  for  a  maiden  ('2,  3)),    a^'amst  rickets  (X,  3.  7), 
virihzing    spell    (4,   4i,    to    win    a    woman's  love  (6,  8-y),  against 
premature     birth     (6,    17),    to    win    a  man's    love     (^^,  180-1 -il). 
Bv.     raA;s/iw/  =  tubeculosis,  X,  bfi,  31  ^  4j9ya  =  dysentery.  X,  lO'?, 
12;    Harir?mn -i&nndxce,     i,J,    11-12.    Yajurveda  :     Arsaras" 
hemorrhoids.   12,97;    Arma7i=-eye    desease,    30,    II  ;    Kilasa  = 
erysipelas,  80,  77  .  Av.  Ja/adara=  dropsy,  6,  22  ;  Apachit  =  soreB, 
6,  25  ;  TaZi;wa7i  =  malaria,  1,  25.  Pakshahata  =  pA,Vii\ys\s  ;  in  Kau- 
sika Sutra  31    18;  7i^-sa=^cough     1,12,  3;  ^jt)asma?'a  —  epilepsy, 
26,    14  21,     Kustha   (leprosy i,  Visucikj    (cholera'.    Arsa    (piles), 
Daddhru  (ringworms',  il/t^cc/ia  hysteria),  Sada  (asthma  ,   Madhu 
meha  (diabetes).     Taittirya  Samhita    6,    4,    9*3    says  a  Brahmin 
must  not  practise  medicine,  as    thereby    he    comes     in     contact 
with   demon-seized    persons   (Maitrayani     Samhita   4.    6,    2)    a3 
thereby  he  gets  defiled  and  seized  by  the  desease  spirits. 

Angiras  (2,  S"?,  1)  :  Let  an  intelligent  rich  and  powerful 
suitor  (samvala)  come  to  us,  0  Agni,  for  this  maiden 
who  is  enjoyable  to  her  vara  (Lat.  phero-Gk.  pher  = 
fertilizer  =  Ger.  Wahlerj,  and  pleasant  at  gatherings  samana, 
where  was  a  feast  of  meats  and  drinks,  with  dances 
and  carousals,  and  dramas  like  Agastya  and  Lopamudra,  Yama 
and  Yiimi,  Surya-Savitri  were  played  with  appropriate  gestures 
of  the  body),  Angiras  (12,  1,  2o)  :  Males  and  females  become 
excited  bv  this  odor,  and  the  penis  is  induced  towards  the 
vagina  [Yaete  gandhah  pur^isheshu  strishu  piansu  bhago  rucih). 
I  am  a  dominant  and  supreme  being  on  this  earth  ;  I  go  and 
conquer,     subdue    and    remove   every   obstacle    (when  going   to 

Accordina;  to  Polynesian  myth  (Maori),  the  nioon  is  the  permanent  true 
husband  of  all  women  ;  hecause  women  menstruate  (pahtke\  when  the  new 
moon  appears.  The  girl's  first  mensturation  is  due  to  the  moon  having 
had  connection  with  her  during  her  sleep.  An  inscription  in  the  temple 
of  Khons— the  moon— at  Thebes  states  that  "through  his  agency,  women 
conceive".  The  moon  was  regarded  as  the  controller  of  menstruation. 
The  placenta  as  well  as  the  child  was  considered  to  be  form^i^d  of  menstrual 
bloom,  the  welfare  of  the  placenta  was  therefore  considered  by  the  ancient 
Egyptian  under  the  control  of  the  moon. 


20  THE  LITERARY  HlSTOEY  OP  ANOIKNT  INDIA 

the  Assembly- Sabha  ;  aham  asmi  sahaman  uttaro  namo-^ 
bhumyan  -,  abhishadasmi  visvasbadasamasam  vishamahi,  12',  L, 
64.  0  Motber  Earth,  let  me  be  well-established  (bhume 
matarni  dhebi  m^  bhadraya  supratishiditham,  .li,  1,  d3).  The 
earth  bearing  upon  her  many  different  peoples  ijana),  speaking 
different  tongues  (vak),  following  different  religions  (dbarma) 
as  suit  them  in  particular  regions  ( 12. i,  45),  The  earth  has 
her  hill  sides  and  her  uplands  ;  hers  is  the  wide  plain  ;  she  is 
the  bearer  of  plants  of  many  uses  (12,  1).  "Yama  had  died. 
The  gods  tried  to  persuade  Yami  to  forget  him.  She  said  : 
Only  today  he  has  died.  Then  the  gods  said  :  Thus  she  will 
never  forget  him  ;  we  will  create  night  ;  for  at  that  time 
there  was  only  day  and  no  night.  The  gods  created  night  ; 
then  arose  to  morrow.  Thereupon  she  forgot  him.  Therefore 
the  people  say  :  Day  and  Night  indeed  :  Let  sorrow  be  for 
gotten". — Maitrarjani  Samhitk,  1,  5.12.  Aitaraya  (Etrurians 
=-Bib.  Ituraen8=  Heb.  Iter  =  Itara  Mahidhara),  Kausitaki 
(Hun.  Kosik),  Taittiraya  (Tatars  ,  Gopatha  (Gepidae),  Sata  patha 
(Soyot  =  Suta,  Satvata,  Svati,  Sata-bahana)  Brahmanas  were 
composed  to  explain  their  respective  rites.  Grihya  Sutras  =- 
Domestic  Rites  (Rv.  rita  =  Zd.  arta  =  Gk.  Lat.  artus  — Ger.  Ge- 
recht)  are  those  of  Asvalayana  (Sarmatian  Asioi,  Assi  of  Russian 
Chronicles),  Sankhayana  I  Sabine  SancQs),  Gobhila,  Bharadvaja, 
Khadira  Apasthambha,  Paraskara,  Hiranyakesm,  Vaikhanasa 
Kausika  (Hun  Kosik)  and  Manavas  (Manus  of  Admiralty  Isles  ; 
or  Cretan  Minos  =  ancient  Egypt  Menes).  Vara  (Ger.  Wahler 
=  Lat;.  fero  =  Gk.  pher,  fertilizer)  to  Vadhu  (Lith.  vedu^  OSlav. 
veda  =  wedded),  pointing  out  the  Polar  star:  Be  steady  like 
the  yonder  Dhruva  (Anc.  Egypt  Thuban  —  ^Vlpha  Drachonis  in 
2780  B.C.  ;  or  Dhube  in  Ursa  Major),  prospering  in  my  house. 
Vadhu  :  Be  yourself  constant  ;  may  1  be  faithful  in  the  house 
of  my  husband.  For  three  days  and  nights  of  marriage  after 
the  first  connubial  embrace  (Av  14.  c8 — 89.  At  present  the 
bridegroom  pushes  with  his  legs  a  stone  rod,  symbolizing 
erect  phallus,  seven  times  the  thighs  of  his  bride  forward 
against  painted  black  and  reddish  seven  circles,  symbolizing 
vulva  with  pubic  hair,  the  most  important  part  of  the  marriage 
ceremony),  sexual  intercourse  was  tabued,  thus  leaving  the 
bride  to  be  enjoyed  first  by  Agni  (a  wooden  rod— penis 
symbol  was  twirled  rapidly  in  a  wooden  cavity  =  vulva  symbol 
to  engender  fire;  hence  Agni  =  coition  symbol);  Matari  Svan, 
another  name  of  Agni,  means,  swelling  the  matrix,  i.e.,  impreg- 
nating hen,  Soma  (Sin,  the  moon  god  of  fertility)  and  the 
Gandharva  —the  spirit  of  voluptuous  pleasure — volupia,  and 
giving  her  vagina  rest  to  heal  the  cicatrices  of  the  fracture 
of  the  hyman  (syuman^  Rv.  X,  85,  40-41). 

(The   altar)   should   be   broader   on  the  west  side,  contracted 
in    the    middle    and  broad    again    on    the  east  side  j  for  thus- 


DHARMA  SUTRAS  21 

shaped  they  praise  a  woman  ;  broad    about    the    hips,    somewhat 
narrower  between  the    shoulders    and  contracted  in  the  middle  ; 
thereby  he  makes  it  pleasmg  to  the  gods  —Sa<a  Patha  Br.  1,'2,&. 
16.     Thereupon    the     Prativasthas   when    the    wife  is  led    away 
asks    her  :   With    whom   holdesD    thou    coition.      Now    when  a 
wotuan    belonging    to    one    has    sexual  union  with  another,  she 
undoubtedly    commits  a    (sin)    against    Varuna.     He   therefore 
asks    her,    least    she    should    sacrifice    with  a  secret  pang  in  her 
mind  ;  for    when    confessed,    the    sin    becomes     less,    since    it 
became    truth.     And    whatever    she    confesses  not.  that  indeed 
will    turn     out    injurious    to    her     relatives.'' — Sata    Patha  lir. 
2,  5. '2.  2  J.     Dharma     Lith.    derme,    treaty  — Gk.  thronos  — Lat. 
forma  — form         constitution)      Sutras — Gautama      iGothones), 
Vasishiiha    (Varisti),    Bau  Ihayauii    i  Budhini),    Apasthamba  und 
Hiranyak-!sin  i  Manava)  ~  expound    the    rules    of   conduct   of  the 
ruling    classes       (rajanyam — Lat.    re'gnum  =  Kshatriyas.    priests 
(purahitas  ;  pura=Lat.    pre,    pro,    in    front;  hita  -  sita,  stated), 
the    presiding    priest    who    by    his  magic  spells  warded  off  evils, 
brought    fortune,    fame   and    victory,  and    thus    the    Brahmanas 
beca:ue    leaders    of    the    communities,    and  usually  recruited  in 
the  beginning  from  the  ruling  families  like  the    Roman  Flamens, 
both   of    whom,    perhaps    related    to    each    other,  perforiijed  the 
same  sacred  rites  with  unerring  utterances  of   the   magic    spells 
and    even    one    syllable    of    which  if  dropped  or  mispronounced, 
they    regarded    the    whole    sacrifice    spoilt    'the    similar  priests 
of    the    indo- Europeans  :  of  ihe  Magis,  Athravan  :  of  the  Kelts, 
Druidesi  ;  warriors  (Kshatriyas  ;  Bathaesta  =  charioteers    of   the 
Saka  Magas  -.  Rom.     Milites  ;  Keltic  Equites  ;  agriculturists  and 
traders     (Vaisyas  =  Zd     V^stryo  ^  Rom.     quirites  -  Kelt,     plebs) 
and    slaves    (Sudras   and    Dasas    who    were    mostly    enslaved  of 
the  above  mentioned  upper   classes    and    Candalas     Gonds     and 
other   aborigines).    Varna    (color  ,    Samkaras     (mixed),     though 
regarded  as  mixed  colored  peoples,   were  most  likely  cross-breeds 
of   sifives    (Lat.   verna)     and     freedraen.     Upanishads    are     the 
expositions   of   the    esoteric    knowledge   (upa>ana  =  worshi[))    of 
various    tribes   of   Aitareya    (Etrurians)  ;  Brihodarauyaka  Arum 
(Et^-uscan    Arnns)  Uddalaka  and   Vajin  (Vagiennii  Yajnavalk>a  j 
Chandogya    of   Asvapati    (Keltic  Usipetes    of     Pancala      named 
after    Pantalia   in    Dacia)  ;  Kau-etaki  (Hun   Kosiks);  Sisunag  = 
Sesnak  of  Ansam-Ses     Ajatasatru    who   got    Kasi  as    a    dowry, 
marrying     Pra^enjit's    daughter     to    Garga     (Gorgias)     Valaki  ; 
Katha     (Khatti  ,    Aruna     Uddalaka    Naciketha)  ;  Taittiraya     (of 
Tatars)  ;  Kena    ( Yaksha— Yuechi),    Aruneya    (Etruscnn    Aruns), 
Mudgala  (Magelli),  Handilya  (Candales.  a  Phrygian  clan  of -Lydia) ; 
Datta    Atreya   (of   Atreusi,    and    of  various   schools   of   thought 
such     as     henothism,     pantheism,    monotheism,    monism,    and 
agnosticism     and     mysticism.     There    are    about     170     extant 
Upanishids.  of  which  Muktika  (20 -3-i)  mentions  108.  Chandogya. 
■one     of     the     oldest,     and     the     last   eight     chapters     of    the 


22  THB  LITEBAET  HISTOKT  CP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Kauthumi  Brahmaa  of  the  Samaveda,  contains  many  interesting^ 
informations.     Silaka  (L,  8,  i  ;  Shilluk   who    lived    as    neighbors- 
of  the  Kikuyi    (Kekayaa),    the    Guptos  (Ar.    Qobt  =  Copt)    whose 
land     was    called    by     the    Greeks     ai  -  Guptio8  =  an    Egyptian) 
calls    refrain    (udgitha)   of     the    Samaveda    as    om    (om    ityetat 
udgithaiu    upasi  the,  1.    1.    1  =  Anc.   Egynt.  Omun,    Amon  =  Heb, 
Amen)    which   means   consent    (anujnaksharam  ;    yat    hi   kinca 
anujnanathi  tadha  om  ithi  eva  aha  ;  1,  1,  8),  and    the    Christians^ 
even  today  after    every    prayer,    say   amen,    a    term    of    solemn 
ratification.     Due  to    fights  between  Mattiaci  (Matciha^Matsya) 
and    Kors    (Kura),    to     escape     suffering,    Cakrayana    with   his 
strolling  girl  I  ai^^Zj-t I    wife    took    shelter    in   a   servant's    village. 
"Seduction    is  Hinkara  ;  libido  is  proposal  Iprastdva]  ,    sleeping 
with  a  woman  is  udgitha  •     sleeping    with    a  williDg   woman    is 
Sama   hymn  (pratihara)  ;  coition  canses  conception    [nidhdna)  ; 
this  kind  of  conception  through  coition  has  been    established  by 
Vamadeva  (Gothama)  =  Gothones  ;    2,    18,    1).     And     Vamadeva 
Gothamas  say  :  "From    the  region    (Brahmoloka  — sub  arctic )  we 
have  come  ;  there  the  sun  lasts  for  many  months,  does  not  rise  or 
set    daily    as    usual    i8.    ll,     J.-^).   Itara    (Etrurian)    Mahidasa. 
(8.  16,  7j  :     He  who  smiles,    eats    and    copulates    makes   thereby 
ritual      offerings      (atba    yath.    hasathi     yath,     jakshathi,    yath, 
maithunam    carathi       sthatha     sasthaiva     tadethi  ;     3,    17,    8).. 
"Devaki-putra    Krishna    (in    Amaravati      inscription    Krishna  == 
Kanh  of  the  Andhras,    and  by  Kanhu,  Krishna  is  still    addressed' 
in  Bengal)  learnfc  from  Ghora    Anginasa     (Ancharius)    that    soul' 
(atman  =  Ancient    Egyptian    Atum  =  OHG.    Atem  =  Gk,   autmen^ 
(life  breath)  is  indestructible,  eternal    and    is  the    stuff  by   which 
the  supreme  person  is  composed  (3,  il,  6,).  Pautrayana   Janasruti' 
was  very    generous    (vahudayi)      and     established     many   guest 
houses — avasathan  (4,1,!).  He  once  went  to  Raikya  Rishi  (=Zd. 
ratu=  Skt.  ritu=  Zd.  arta  =  Skt, +  Zd.    aiaha  =  asha  knowing    Zd.. 
vidva  =  Skt.  vidvana)  with  many  cattle,  chariot  with    horses  and': 
his  daughter  as  his  wife.     At    first    he    said.    0    Sudra    (Chude). 
what    shall  I  do  with  these  luxuries.     But  caressing    the  face    of 
the  Sudia   (Sudra  maiden)    said,  '  this  face  makes  me  speak;  the 
dowered  village    is    still    called    Raikya-parna     in    Maha-Yrisha 
('4.  2.  h -5).     "I   do    not    know    thy    Gotra    (Fr.    coterie-Ger. 
Gautscen  ;  as  a  slave  girl  serving  many  masters  during  my  youth, 
I  obtained  thee.  My  name  is   Jabala    (Keltic    Gabali.   or    White- 
Hun   Jouan- Jouan -Kushan    Zabol  =  Br.  Jauvla,  Jabula,     Pur. 
Jabala)  ;  thou  art  called  Satyakama  (4.  4.   2)  ;     Aruna   (Etruscan 
Aruns)    Svetaketu  (son  of  Uddalaka*    went   once    to  the  Pancala^ 
assembly  where  Jaibali   (Gabali     Pravahana,    a    relative   of   the 
ruler  (rajanya    vandhu  6,  H,  ,5)   asked    him     questions    (6.    3.     1). 
Jaibali  Pravahana  :  ''Woman  is  indeed    a   flame  ;    her    seductive' 
pubes  is  the  smoke    'screen)   of     the    fire;    turgescence   of    her- 
vagina  is  the  burning  ember  ;  delightful  orgasm  is  the  spark.     In 
this     offering     conception    takes   place     (6.     8.     1-2).     Asvapati 


UPAN1SIIAD3  '23 

(Usipetes)  Kekaya(Ir.  Kaikuwaa)  about  Vaisvanara  (universal 
person  — supreme  soul,  ;>.  11.4/:  The  firmament  is  the  head 
of  the  Vaisvanara  ;  the  refulgent  sun  is  his  eye  ;  the  circulating 
air  is  his  breath  ;  the  surgmg  ocean  is  in  the  bladder  within 
the  body  :  the  earth  is  his  foot.  5.  lb.  3).  Aruni  Uddalaka  to 
his  son  Svetaketu  :  Mind  is  dependent  on  food  (6.  6.  5). 
Fast  for  15  days  ;  but  take  some  water,  for  life  originated  in 
water '6.  7.  I  I.  (To  prove  that  mind  is  nourished  by  food) 
after  his  fast  for  1 6  days,  his  father  said  :  Now  recite  some 
portions  of  Ric.  >ama  or  Yajush.  fie  replied  :  No,  nothing 
appears  in  my  mmd  (6.  7.  2).  Now  take  food.  As  from  a 
spark,  fire  is  rekmdled,  so  after  assimulation  of  food,  mind  will 
be  revived  [6.  7.  6). 

Pantheism  :  Neither  the  sun,  the  moon,  the  stars,  nor  the 
lightamg  flash,  what  of  fire,  does  manifest  him.  Kather  they 
are  his  manifestations.  Nay  the  universe  is  his  expression  (16). 
The  architect  of  the  universe  is  omniscient,  the  universe  being 
his  minifestation.  He  knows  it.  He  is  the  source  of  all 
virtues  and  is  the  lord  of  time  and  space  lUi).  The  immanent 
God,  the  source  of  this  universe  is  immortal  and  omniscient. 
There  is  no  other  law  but  him  for  the  preservation  and  regula- 
tioti  of  this  universe  '  Svetas  vatara  6,  14  -  17). 

Monism  :  The  universe  has  originated  in  me  and  I  am 
imminent  in  the  universe.  In  me  the  universe  will  be 
dissolved.  I  am  therefore  the  absolute  Brahman.  1  am  smaller 
than  the  smallest,  bigger  than  the  biggest.  I  am  this  diversified 
universe.  [  am  eternal.  I  am  the  Lord,  the  perfect  the 
wisdom  and  the  bliss  ^Kaivalya  19  20).  Monotheism  :  One  God 
alone  lives  in  every  heart.  He  is  omnipresent  and  is  the  soul 
of  every  creature.  Residing  in  every  being,  he  directs  his 
actions  and  knows  what  he  is  doing.  He  is  perfect  and 
unqualified  (Svetasvatara  6,  11).  Mysticism  :  He  cannot  be  seen 
through  eyes.  Nor  his  voice  can  be  heard.  He  is  beyond  sense 
perceptions  or  activities.  Only  when  mind  has  been  purified,  he 
can  be  realized  with  profound  contemplation. — Munduka  b,  6. 

Ramayana  and  Maha  Bharata  are  the  Indian  antiquarian 
encycloptedias  of  ethnology,  dynastic  histories,  manners,  mores, 
and  customs  in  pleasant  entertaining  popular  story  forms.  Though 
Ramavana  is  regarded  as  the  older,  its  composition  is  more 
advanced  in  style  than  that  of  the  MahaBharata  (of  Ugrasravas, 
8,800  verses  ;  Vyasa  2  4000;  modern  1  lakh  verses)  which  is 
rather  archaic  ;  though  both  of  them'  are  based  on  heroic  episodes, 
Ramayana  which  was  composed  in  Kosola  territory  which  was 
Buddhistic  in  •2nd  century  B.  C.  shows  Buddhistic  influence 
in  the  restrained  manners  of  its  heroes.  Famayana  has  three 
recensions  of  7  Kandas  of  which  Uttara  Kanda  is  undoubtedly  a 
supplement  as  well  as  most  of   the  Bala-Kanda.    except    perhaps 


24  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OF  ANOIENX  INDIA 

1st.  and  5th  chapters,  of  Kosola,  Maharastra  and  Gaura  of  about 
24000  stanzas  of  which  8000  are  common  to  all  of  them  2-41-49, 
66-93.  117;  3.  1-14;  4.17-18,40-43  45-47;  5.  41-65.  58-64; 
63-68  ;  6.  23-10,  59-61  (39.  74-75  are  late  additions  and  of  which 
6.  119  is  the  latest.  Dasaratha  (Dassaretae  of  Illyria=  Mitanyian 
Diisratta)  ruling  in  Ayodhya  (is  it  named  after  Agade  !)  on  the 
Sarayu  (flowing  water  as  in  Harirut)  had  matrimonial  connec- 
tions with  the  Kekaya  princess  (Ham.  Kikuyu  =  Ir.  Kaikawas) 
of  the  Punjub  and  Kosala  princess  Kosalya  (Khas —Kaasite).  In 
allianne  with  Atithigva  Divo  (bright)  Dasa  of  Pancala  and  Kasi 
i  bright  Daci  of  Pautalia),  Dasaratha  waged  war  against 
Timidvaja  Sambaras  (Gimbri  with  Dolphin  in  their  standards) 
and  his  wife  Maya  (Maeo)-vati.  and  he  was  twice  severely 
wounded,  and  only  by  dexterous  driving  and  careful  nursing  by 
his  wife  Kekayi,  his  life  was  saved  ;  and  Dasaratha  promised 
her  two  rewards  (Ram.  2.  9.  tl-l8)  Kama  (Eemi)  occupied 
Ramgam  (north  of  Kosola*  and  his  ally  Laksmana  ( Beng. 
Lakkhan  — Hind.  Lasman  -  Lucani)  with  the  help  of  Kusika 
(Hun  Kosik)  Visvamitra  fought  Savaras  (Sabar;  of  Formosa  and 
became  friendly  with  Saradvant  (Sardones)  who  was  a  minister 
in  Saura  Mithili  (Sauco  Matae)  court  and  won  the  pretty  Ossete 
(Sita)  princess  in  an  archery  contest  in  the  Scythian  fashion. 
Rama  and  Laksmana  perhaps  with  the  Sauro- Matae,  inducting 
Ossetes  help  wanted  to  occupy  Ayodhya  throne  but  were 
ousted  by  Bharatas.  Rama,  Laksmana  and  Sita  were  helped 
by  Bharadvajas  at  Prayag  where  they  saw  the  Akshaya  Vata 
(Ram,  2.  55  6)  which  was  planted  by  Asoka  from  a  sapling 
from  the  Bodh  Gaya  tree.  This  indicates  that  though 
Valmiki  is  called  adi  kavi,  Ramayana  could  not  have  been 
composed  before  .^nd  century  B.  C  After  crossing  the  Ganga 
and  Yamuna  (Fr.  ]umeau  =  twin  rivers),  they  with  the  help  of 
Guhakas  (Pallava  Malla  Guhas  ;  Maitraka  Guha-Sena  of 
Valabhi)  reached  Citrakuta  and  they  were  befriended  by 
Agastyas  (iEgisthusi.  Valin  (Walon  ;  Bana=Vanii.  perhaps 
both  mixed.  Vijayaditya  Maha  Bali  Bana  Raja,  feudal  of 
Danti  Varraan  Vikramaditya  Five  Bana  inscriptions  from 
Gudimallam.  Bana  Vidyadharas,  feudatories  of  Sata  Yahanas 
of  Banabasi,  near  Patnpa  Lake  Hampi)  who  deprived  his 
brother  Sugriva  of  his  wife  and  kingdom  over  Banaras  (Banar 
of  Annam^  was  killed  by  Rama,  and  Sugriva  was  made  an  ally. 
Palasta  (Assyr.  Pulastn  =•  Egypt.  Pulaseti  — Philistine  =  Pelasgoi  ; 
Paligar  of  S.  India)  Ravana  (Tam.  iraivan.  ruler  ;  irai,  taxes, 
van  one  who  levies  them)  abducted  Sita  to  revenge  insults  to 
his  sister  Surpa  na^a  (sharp-nosed  :  called  also  naka  or  nakha, 
as  S  is  changed  in  K  or  Kha  as  in  Beng.  naka).  Pulasta  Ravana 
was  married  to  Mandodari  (slender  or  wasp  waisted  =■  Skt  kati - 
kshina  vilagna  vramara-madhya,  a  trait  of  the  Cretans  — 
Creteus  =  Kratu.  made  by  tightening  belts),  daughter  of  Maya 
(Maeo)     Danava     (Danaoi),     all    allied     tribes,    whose    another 


kamayana  '  25 

daughter  Mayavati  was  married  to  Timidvaja  Sambara,  his 
brother  Vivisana  who  allied  himself  with  Kama  was  married  to 
Sarama  (Sarraatae  maiden)  and  Sailusi  ;"  Kam.  8.  '22.  -21)  and 
after  Ravana's  fall  secured  Matidodari  and  Lanka  (Lith.  lanka, 
Ieake  =  a  forested  dale).  Kama  with  the  help  of  Ban.iias 
(Banar).  Kapis  (Kappu.  Kapu  of  Telegu  of  S.  India=Kovai  of 
Nev/ Ginea),  Jamliuvaa  V  Madiga  Jambava^  and  Jatayu  (Jatapu 
of  Madarasa.  all  of  Matanga— Madang  of  Borneo,  Khond  origin) 
searched  Sita  in  the  northern  direction  amoust  the  MIecclias 
(Molossi  ;  all  people  undei-  Macedonian  influenoe  as  Iranians, 
Beduins  were  called  Mlecchas  as  well  a^  Yavanas.  In  Mudra 
Rakshasa,  even  Kaluta  ruler  Citra  Varman,  Kashmir  king 
Pushkaiasha.  Suidhu  and  Parasik  kings).  Puhndas  (Pawindah), 
Suraseuas  (Siracena)  Prasrhalas,  Bharatas  '  Phraote.s).  Kurus 
(Ir.  Karush  — Ar.  Qaraish),  Madras  (Madas  .  Kambojas  (l-Cambuia 
""Cambysen-^— Ir.  K.H,mbajia,  Kimnohos),  Yavanas    (Heb.    Javan 

—  Ir.  Yaunafor  Toaians),  Sakts  (Chin  S-ck  Ir  8aka  =  Sacae» 
and  PahlaviiS  (Pehlavi  ;  Run.  4  43.  12).  After  the  downfull  of 
the  Pulasta  power.  Raiui  obt  lined  the  throne  of  Avodhya. 
But  after  his  dealth.  We-tern  India  was  occupied  by  Bharitas, 
sub-lliaiilayas  md  N.  Hj.  cam-^  into  the  possession  of  Kusas 
(KhisK  for  we  ftnd  that  Rama  was  succeeded  by  Kusa,  and  on 
the  Mithila  throne  Kusa  dvaja  standarJ-bearer  of  Kusas). 
Thus  Ayodhya  became  Kosola  and  soon  after  Saketa,  that  is, 
the  stronghold  of  the  Hakas. 

In  the  Mahabharata  and  the  Piiranas  the  genealogies 
of  the  ruling  dynasties  and  their  priests  are  given.  Through 
oral  transmission  through  countless  generatii^ns,  interpolations 
by  later  day  poets,  names  places  and  time*  have  been  so  much 
distorted  that  it  has  now  become  very  difficult  to  disentangle 
facts  from  fancies.  Manu  is  described  as  the  primogenitor. 
Is  Manu  a  generic  indicator  of  the  Mediterranean  race  like 
Cretan  Minos.  Ancient  Egyptian  Menes.  Mannus,  ancestor  of 
the  Germans  according  to  Tacitus,  or  Melauisian  tribe  Manus  f 
Similarity  of  names  does  not  mean  much.  We  can  easily 
equate    with    Amerind    Kansa=Kam=a    of    Mathura  ;    Assinas  — 

—  Asvina  ;  Baya  =  Bahu  ;  Sekani  =  Sakuni  ;  Senecij  —  Sunaka. 


Khotanese  Ramayana  :  A  Brahmin  propitiated  .Mahesvara  by 
makino  ^J  an  da/as  =  ma.^\ca.l  circles.  Mahesvara  save  him  Cirfiimiui- 
the  Jewel  satisfying  all  desires,  and  a  cow.  Dasaratha  Sahasravahu  in 
his  hunting  expedition  coveted  and  carried  the  cow.  Hermit's  son 
Farasu  Rama  (Rama  with  an  axe  -  parasu  =  Gk.  pelekus= -^umer  pilakku) 
slew  Dasaratha.  Dasaratha's  son  Rama  and  a  kinsman  saved  them- 
selves by  hiding.  A  daughter  Sita  was  born  by  the  chief  queen  of 
Dasagriva  Astrologers  prophesied  that  she  would  bring  ruin  to 
Dasagriva  ;  so  she  was  cast  to  the  ocean.  But  she  was  saved,  and 
when  grown  up  captured  the  attention  of  Rama  and  Laksmana  who 
married   her.     Dasagriva   flying   through   air  saw   Sita's  beauty.     Vulture 


26  '        THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

But  no  direct  tribal  transmigrations  are  conceivable  between 
India  and  America  in  ancient:  times.  We  have  to  take  into 
consideration    not   only     racial    kinship,    linguistic      affiliations, 


igigi'  which  watched  over  Sita  attacked  Dasagriva,  and  was  slain  by 
him.  Sita  was  carried  to  Lankapura.  Rama  and  Laksmana  in  search 
of  Sita  came  to  Makalam  where  Sugriva  and  Nanda  were  fighting  for 
supremacy,  Rama  killed  Sugriva. 

They  made  a  stone  bridge  (hi  =  Ir.  haitu  =  Skt.  setu),  crossed 
it.  and  Raksasas  were  defeated.  Dasagriva  took  a  serpent,  extracted 
its  poison  and  mixed  it  with  butter  on  his  arrovv  with  which  he 
shot  Rama.  .Arrow  pierced  Rama's  forehead.  Nanda  brought  a 
mountain  peak  with  herb  to  Jivaka  who  restored  Rama  to  health. 
Sita    becoming   the  object  of  ridicule  of  peoples  descended  into  the  earth 

In  Dasaratha  Jat'ika  (461)  :  Dasaratha  king  of  Baranasi,  by  his 
first  wife,  had  two  sons— Rama  Pandita,  Lakkhana  Kumara  and  a 
daughter  Sita  Devi.  Sita  was  married  to  bi^th  of  her  brothers. 
Dasaratha  after  the  death  of  his  first  wife  married  again,  and  had  a 
son  by  her,  Bharata  Kumara.  Rama  was  made  the  crown  prince. 
But  fearing  the  intrigues  of  his  second  wife,  Dasaratha  advised 
Rama  to  live  in  seclusion  for  12  years  when  after  his  death  they 
could  occupy  the  throne.  But  Dasaratha  died  in  7  years,  and  Bharata 
went  to  Rama  to  offer  him  the  throne.  But  Rama  and  Sita 
declined  to  come  before  the  12th  year  as  asked  by  their  father.  Rama 
and  Lakkhana  came  and  ruled  by  making  Sita  Devi  their  chief  queen. 
Laodike,  daughter  of  Antiochus  II,  was  married  in  turns  to  her  three 
brothers— A ntiochu'5  III,  Seleukus  IV  and  Antiochus  IV. 

South  Indian  and  Mexican  art  motifs  are  common  as  to  lotus,  makara, 
kirti-mukha.  god  standing  on  crouched  human  dwarf,  temple  of 
granite  railings  of  flights  of  slavs  in  the  shape  of  serpents,  dragons, 
the  corbelled  arch  and  columns  in  spirals.  Pachisi  game  of 
India  -  Potolli  of  .Mexico  ;  hook  swinging  and  Valodor  of  Mexico, 
parasol,  fan  and  litter  and  ensignia  of  loyalty  and  rank  in  India 
and  Mexico  Kali  =  Coatlicue,  Aztec  goddess  of  death,  with  skull 
for  head,  a  skirt  of  writhing  snakes,  a  necklace  of  skulls,  severed 
hands  and  hearts. 

Among  the  Manus  tribe  of  the  ./admiralty  Islands,  a  group  of 
efficient  puritans  where  women  never  swing  their  grass  skirts,  girls 
are  never  allowed  to  flirt,  and  all  love,  even  the  affection  between 
the  brother  and  sister,  is  measured  in  goods.  Here  there  is  no 
prostitution.  The  owner  of  a  war-captured  prostitute  makes  money. 
Here  a  woman  never  loosens  her  gras,  skirt  even  in  the  extremes 
of  child  births.  Between  husbands  and  wives,  sex  is  a  hasty,  covert 
shameful  matter  P.  71.  The  Manus  people  are  a  small  energetic 
tribe,  tall,  brown-skinned,  lean  and  active,  with  nothing  but  their 
wits,  their  skill  and  ethics  that  the  dead  will  penalize  the  unindus- 
trious,  they  build  up  a  high  standard  of  living  which  they  maintain- 
by  continuous  hard  work.  P  53.  The  ideal  home  setting  is  a 
household  with  two  children,  a  child  to  sleep  with  the  husband  on 
one  side  of  the  father  and  a  child  to  sleep  on  the  other.  When 
men   and   women   have   aged   together,     and     their     children    are    half- 


MAN  us  27 

territorial  propinquity,  but  also  customs,  manners,  and  parti- 
cularly physical  traits  of  anthropoiof^ic  significance.  For 
lanj^uage,  manners  and  religion  may  be  borrowed  from  one  race 
by  another,  and  can  be  also  imposed  by  the  victors  over  their 
conquered  territories.  There  are  Mediterranean  traits  in  our 
population  as  in  Iran.  But  they  might  have  been  separately 
counted  as  Pulastas,  Agastyas,  Danavas.  "With  Melanisian 
Manus  we  have  common  brown  complexion,  mesaticephalic 
head,  black  eyes,  medium  nose  and  stature,  puritaniJ^m  in  the 
mode  of  life,  piercing  the  lobes  of  the  ears  of  the  pubescents  in 
puberty  rites,  ancestor  worship,  joint  family,  honest  payment  of 
personal,  family  and  ancestral  debts. 

Other  Indonesian  tribes  might  have  followed  the  leadership 
of  Manus  ;  Sabari  of  H'ormosa,  as  Savaras  of  C  I.  and  ("leylon  ; 
Kalinga  of  Luzon  as  Kalingas  of  Orissa  and  Kulinga  of  Ceylon  ; 
Todjas  of  Celebes  as  Todas  of  Nilgiris  ;   Benkid-non    of  Minanao 

grown,  they  may  relax  and  talk  together  P.  212.  The  puritanical 
Manus  conceal  all  menstruation  between  menarche  and  marriage. 
There  is  no  word  for  virgin  in  the  language,  and  bleeding  from 
rupture  of  the  hymen  is  simply  equated  with  menstruation  which  is 
believed  to  be  reactivated  by  mirriage.  So  extreme  is  the  prudery 
of  the  people  that  any  visual  inspection  of  the  genitals  is  unthink- 
able, and  the  chances  of  the  rediscovery  of  the  hymen  are  slight. 
The  phrase  for  menstruation  is  ICekenbroot  =  broken  =  defloration.  At 
her  first  menstruation  the  Manus  girl  is  given  a  great  ceremony. 
There  are  large  exchanges  of  food  and  ceremonial  and  splashing 
parties  in  the  lagoon.  The  corresponding  ceremony  for  boys  in 
which  their  ears  are  pierced  and  comparable  charms  are  said  ovt-r 
them      P.   176.     .Margaret  Me^d,-  Mnle  and  Female.  London  IVSO. 

Manus  of  the  Admiralty  Islands  believe  that  their  ancestors  are  a 
aware  of  their  hidden  motives  and  they  punish  with  illness  and 
misfortune  all  acts  of  violence  within  joint  family  — murder,  adultery, 
displacement  of  true  heir,  incest,  or  sexual  relationship  between 
two  persons  who  are  within  forbidden  degrees  of  kinship.  The 
spirits  of  the  ancestors  though  not  regarded  as  omnicient  or  omnipotent, 
but  more  knowledgeable  and  powerful,  punish  breaches  of  the  code 
of  conduct  in  relation  to  sex  and  business.  Sex  offences  which 
interfere  with  the  social  order  of  the  Manus  are  li^ht  words,  chance 
physical  contact,  careless  jests,  non-observance  of  the  proper  avoidance 
reaction  towards  relatives  ;  or  economic  laxity  of  any  sort,  failure  to 
pay  debts,  careless  manipulation  of  family  properties,  unfair  allotment 
ot  funds  among  the  needs  of  several  relatives  P.  330.  The  .Manus 
moral  code  includes  strict  rules  of  truth-telling  and  promise  keeping 
and  they  regard  these  rules  as  having  a  powerful  supernatural  sanction. 
For  them  one  of  the  two  supreme  virtues  is  high  levtl  of  commercial 
morality,  and  this  requires  honesty  and  mutual  trust  P.  371. 

Kula  system  prevails  amonst  Trobriand  Islanders  through  exchange  of 
reciprocial  gifts  and  courtesies  P.  126  1.19.  A  Macbeth— Experiments  in 
Living,  Macmillan  &  Co.,  London  1952. 


"23  THE  LITKRARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

as  Bagdi  of  Bengal  and  Budugon  (Telegu)  of  the  Godavari 
region  .  Pan-ti  of  Canton  area  as  Pundia-Pods  of  N.  Bengal ; 
Madang,  Kantu  and  Dasun  of  Borneo  as  Matang,  Madigas 
of  S.  India,  Khonds -Gonds-Candala.  and  Dusyanta  of  the 
Giingetic  Doab  -,  Orang  Malelu  of  Malaya  as  Ot-aon  of  C.  India, 
and  Maleru  of  Mysore  ;  Mahisyas  and  Sassak  of  Bali  as 
Mahisya^  of  Bengal  and  Mysore  and  Sasak  m  Ayodhya  ,  Kanaka 
as  Kanaka  ruler  of  Haihayas  (Hun  :  Hiao-Hui)  and  Kanaka 
as  cocoanut  planters  of  Cochin  Australoids  and  Negritos  are 
menr,ioned  as  Nishadas  as  black  as  crows,  low  in  stature  with 
-short  arms,  high  cheek  bone  and  snub  nose  iBhag.  P  4,  14,  44). 
But  in  the  Vedas  Manu  (Kv.  d.11.9),  Manus  (Kv  i,  159.  ^)  are 
■used  in  the  sense  of  Ger.  Mensch  -  Man. 

A  coin  has  been  found  in  Kondapur  in  South  Hyderabad,  men- 
tioning Mana  Mahisha  as  a  Saka  ruler  after  the  downfall  of  Sata- 
Vahanas  ;  his  father  was  a  Maha-Sena-Pati  The  dynasty  ruled  until 
•overthrown  by  early  Chalukyas. 

Polynesia  has  some  curious  traditions.  When  their  earliest  fore- 
fathers came  sailing  across  the  sea,  they  had  with  them  leaves  of 
a  certain  plant  which  if  they  chewed,  their  thirst  disappeared, 
and  they  could  drink  sea  water  at  a  pinch  without  being  sick.  Peru 
has  had  Coca  plant,  the  leaves  of  which  contain  Cocaine  which 
were  chewed  by  Incas  to  remove  feelings  of  thirst  and  weariness.  It 
is  known  that  chewing  of  Coca  leaves  over  a  fairly  short  period 
will  allow  one  to  drink  sea  water  with  certain  immunity  Sweet  potato 
(Ipomoea  batatas)  was  brought  over  to  New  Zealand  in  vessels  which 
were  not  canoes  but  consisted  of  wood  (Balsa  wood  raft  logs  of 
Peru  float  in  water,  being  light  and  hard,  having  air  cells  in  the 
body  ;  aeiroplane  wings  are  made  out  of  the  wood  plank),  bDund 
together  with  ropes.  Sweet  potatoes  are  called  Kumara,  a  term  also 
used  by  Incas  and  it  was  extensively  cultivate!  ;  also  Bottlegourd  = 
Kon  -  Tika  =  Lagenaria  vulgaris  is  converted  into  water  containers, 
found  in  desert  graves  of  Peru,  Cocoanuts  grew  extensively  on  the 
Isthamas  of  Panima  before  the  time  of  Columbus.  It  is  spoilt  by 
sea  water.  But  kept  above  water,  it  sprouts  and  lives  for  a  long 
period. — The  Kon-Tiki  Expedition -Thor  Heyerdahl. 

The  raid  of  Khatti  Mursilis  about  1650  B-  C  put  an  end  to  the 
Amorite  Hammurabi  dynasty  of  Babylonia.  Kassites  =  Kassu  =  Kasshu 
=  Kasip=»  Kassipi  =  Kasyapa,  Median  Kaspia  =  Gk.  Kosoioi,  their  god 
Amman  Kasipa,  of  the  Zagros  range,  allied  to  LuUus,  Gutis,  Yutii,  who 
wore  pig  tails  on  their  head,  and  were  acting  military  and  adminis- 
trative officers  of  the  Amorites,  became  masters  of  the  country, 
ruled  it  for  four  centuries  (1650-1250),  The  sister  queen  of 
Marsites  was  VValanni.  Their  son  and  daughter  Tudhaliyas  and 
Duduhepa,  became  Khatti  king  and  queen.  Their  son  and  daughter 
Aruwandas  and  Asmunika  succeeded  them  Their  son  was  Hattusilas. 
His  son  and  daughter  Tudhaliyas  and  Nikkal-mati  became  the  king 
and  queen  of  Boghoskeui.  Their  son  and  daughter  Suppiluliumas 
became  the  king  and  queen  and  made  an  alliance  with  the  Egyptian 
Thutmoses  in    1450   over   Mitannian     Dusratta's     assasination.      Purush 


KHATTiS  2y 

Soma  (Sheiu  —  Semites)  is  prominent  in  our  myths.  Semitic 
Amoru  =  Amorite8=  Pur.  Amaras  ;  Aesyiian  ( Asshur— Ashiret  ^ 
Skt  Asura)  ;  the  battle  cry  of  Asuraa,  according  to  Patanjali.  i-j 
belays  helayat-Bib.  Halleluiah;.  Depicted  as  Sura-Asura  Yuddha 
is  the  war  between  the  Sura  (Sauro-Matae  Mitanni  Sun  =  llarri  = 
Hori  =  Honte8  Gen.  3').'/0  and  Assyrians.  Mitanni  kinj^dom. 
( Mariiinnu'=*  JVIarouite=  Rv.  Marya)  was  split  up  into  two  parts — 
Harri  (Syria)  and  Mitanni  (Subarta  — S.  Armeniai.  Khatti  king 
Suppilaiinmas  crossed  the  Euphrates  and  recovered  the  province 
which  Dusratta,  king  of  Mitanuu,  was  forced  to  surrender  lo 
Artatama.    king      of      Harri.      Mattiuza       (mati  -  ojas^  bpirited 


Khattis  occupied  Anatolia  in  17th  century  and  at  its  end  destroyed 
Knossus  ;  raided  Babylonia  of  the  Amorites.  wrested  Syria  from 
l8th  dynasty  of  Egypt,  and  occupied  Ansum  as  Parsa  Xsaytia  and 
penetrated  as  far  as  Sogdiana- Marakand  =  Samarkand  ;  they  reached 
India  as  Puru  Kshatriyas.  In  l6th  century  Mitannians  Sauro- 
Matae  =  Saura-Mithilis)  with  their  thundering  Chariots  (Skt.  ratha 
•=Liih.  ratas  -  Lat.  rota  =  Keltic  roth  -  OHG  rad  of  horses  (Skt.  haya 
=  Ant;  Sax  ehu  =  Kelt  ech  ;  asva  =  Zd  aspa  =  Lith.  aszwa)  occupied 
Kabur  valley  of  Syria  ;  and  Kashshites  (Kiisyapa)  occupied  in  16-l5th 
centuries  Babylonia  from  South  Russian  plains.  And  they  occupied 
N.  India.  Flat  bronze  axes  of  Hissar  in  N  Persia  and  Harappa  are 
similar.  Indian  battle  cars  irathas)  had  as  usual  4  spokes  (arrm), 
Hittite  six,  Homeric  chariots  8,  Keltic  (4-10  12).  later  Hittite  and 
Assyrian  6-8.  Usually  the  wheel  icakra)  was  made  of  a  single 
piece  of  wood,  chiselled  into  a  circular  shape  just  as  the  Keltic 
chariot  wheels  were  made  and  were  shod  with  copper  or  leather 
tyres.  I  bend  with  song  as  bends  a  carpenter  his  felloe  of  solid 
wood.  Rv.  7.  32.  20.  Lynchpin  =  ;ini  ;  nave  =  nribhi  ;  pole=isa  ;  lashing  = 
yaktra  ;  felloe  =  nemi  ;  trace  =  rasmi  rasana  ;  spokes  =  arrin  The  warrior  was 
armed  with  a  bow.  somewhat  short  and  stiff,  made  of  horn  and  sinew,  known 
in  Siberia,  Turkey,  Iran.  Crete  "The  bow  string  close  to  his  ear  as  fain 
to  speak,  she  presses,  holding  her  well  loved  friend  t  arrow)  in  her 
embraces  ;  strained  on  the  bow.  she  whispers  like  a  woman  Rv.  6  75.3, 
like  a  woman  to  her  lover  (samaneva  yosha  Rv.  6,  75-4),  As  with  the 
leather  thong  they  bend  the  chariot  yoke  to  hold  it  fast  Rv. 
X,  60.  There  was  a  hollowed  cavity  (gartha^  seat  savyastha)  for 
the  bow-man  while  the  charioteer  ^Sarathi)  led  the  chariot  from 
a  stand  (statr)  or  platform  (ratha- vahanam  ■=  ratha  -  prosthasi  from 
behind  The  stiapt  was  venom  smeared  (;il;ikta)  and  tipped  with  deer 
horn,  having  copper  mouth  Rv.  6,  75.  15  With  the  leather  thong 
they  bind  true  chariot  yoke  to  hold  it  fast  X,  60.  8.  Semite  Sargon 
in  8th  century  B.  C.  put  an  end  to  the  Khatti  rule  by  capturing  the 
Khatti  capital  Carchemish  which  the  Khattis  conquered  in  1200  century 
B.  C.  The  Khattis  were  hypsibrachycephalics.  fleshy-nosed,  squat 
of  figure,  with  retreating  forehead,  flattened  occiput,  flat  (round  of 
Alpines)  nape  of  the  neck,  large-eyed  and  clean  shaved.  Mittannian 
Harri  ruled  Egypt  as  Hyksos  for  their  hinterland  was  known  as  Hurri-Hor  ; 
their  storm  god  was  Tesnub  riding  on  a  bull  ;  his  bulls  were  called  Sheresh< 
and  Hurresh  ;  his  consort  was  Hepa  riding  on  a  lion.  The  lion-man. 
(Nara-Simhaj,  the  eagle  with  human  head  (Garura)  are  Khatti  deities. 


30  THE  LITERABY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

inind  )  with  Khatti  partisans  killed  Dusratta  Dusratta's  ally 
Artatama  intervened  and  made  his  son  Shutarna,  the  combined 
king  of  Harri  and  Mitanna.  Assyria  taking  advantage  of 
the  chaotic  stage  pounced  upon  Mitannu,  and  Mitannu  palace 
was  sacked,  plundered,  bai-nt  into  ashes  (8kt.  asa),  reduced  into  a 
dust  heap,  youths  castrated  and  maidens  raped  and  enslaved, 
and  the  treasures  which  Dusratta's  grandfather  had  brought 
from  plundering  Ashur  were  taken  back  by  the  Assyrian  victors 
with  many  nobles  as  captives.  Mattiuaza  escaped  and  came 
to  the  KhitDi  couro.  Sappiluliumas  gave  his  daughter  in 
marriage  on  condition  that  her  son  will  be  the  only  successor 
to  thethrouri,  he  installed  hun  oa  the  united  throne  of  Harri  and 

The  striking  affinities  between  the  ceramic  wares  of  N.  Iran  of 
abaut  2000  B.  C  and  those  of  Anatolia  in  the  second  millenium 
seem  to  indicate  a  migration  of  people  from  Turkestan  through  N. 
Iran  into  AnatOiia  prior  to  2030  B.  C.  The  rock  sculptures  at 
KurangUQi  in  the  Mamaseni  region  in  Fars  represent  certain 
somatic  figures  with  sufficient  art  and  reliability.  It  shows  about 
50  figures.  The  heads  and  faces  are  around,  noses  thick  and 
slightly  hooked.  They  wear  long  pigtails  and  some  have  also 
a  pair  of  long  curls  from  the  temples  in  front  of  their  ears.  These  are 
the  features  which  associate  the  Caspian  with  the  Nasian  speaking 
Hittites  of  Boghas-Koi,  although  Caspians  do  not  share  the  extreme 
brachycephaly.  A  Pope  :  Persian  Arts  P  53.  Kassite  gods  :  Surias  = 
Surya  ;  Maruttas  =  Marutah  ;  Indas  =  Indra  ;  Bagas=  Bhaga  ;  Dakash  = 
Daksha  Prajapati.  They  seem  to  be  Sauro-Matae  who  with  their 
speedy  horse-drawn  war  chariots  overran  Asia!  Minor,  named  after 
them  Syria  in  16th  century  B.  C  and  known  as  Mitannus.  and 
allied  themselves  with  the  Hittites  A  Mitannian  chariot  found  in 
Egytian  ISth  dynasty  grave  with  axle  is  bound  with  fir  bark  of  Caucasus 
region  The  girdle  worn  by  the  amazon  from  Boghas  Koi  is 
strikingly  similar  in  form  to  bronze  girdles  found  in  graves  on  both 
sides  of  the  Caucasus.  But  tne  oldest  cist  graves  in  Carchemish  in 
N.  Syria  contain  eyelet  pins  found  in  coppercage  burrows  on  the 
Kuban  river,  poke  butted  spear  heads  and  penul-ir  bracelets  with 
flattened  recoiled  ends  which  are  widely  diffused  in  South  Russia, 
Hungary  and  Bohemia.  Hittite  shield  resembles  dimunitive  version 
of  Mycenaean  figure  S-typa  Phrygian  language  exhibits  close  affinities  to 
Greek,  and  even  made  uie  of  Greek  words  ;  at  the  same  time  some 
Slavonic  parallels  have  been  noted,  and  certain  features  would 
connect  with  Hittite  Nasili.  Phrygian  chief  god  was  Bagaios  =  Gk 
-Zeus  Bagaos  =  Slav.  Boga  =  Zd.  Bagha==  Bhaga.  Phrygios  and  Khatti 
settled  in  Armenia.  They  were  all  hypsibrachycephalic  brunet  Dinaric 
Alpines,  known  as  Armenoids  and  spoke  a  similar  language -a 
centum  variety  of  Western  Aryan  speech.  Tall  and  fair-haired 
Achaeans  coming  in  15th  century  B.  C.  from  the  valley  of  the 
Danube,  armed  with  iron  instruments,  dominated  the  bronze  using 
Pelasgians  of  Greece.  As  mentioned  by  Homer,  Achaean  heroes 
ipassed  into  the  next  world  in  the  flames  of  funeral  pyres. 
Achaeans  in  turn  in  12-Uth  century  were  dominated  by  Dorians 
^who  invaded  Peloponnesus. 


RISHYASRINQA  31 

Mitanni.  Akit  Tesbeb  (AcyutaKesavaj  fled  with  400  chariots 
aud  belongini^'s.  The  treaty  tablet  between  Sii|i|)iluMaiiias  and 
Mattiuaza  has  been  found  at  Boghaskeui,  signed  in  I4f0  B  C. 
in  which  Mi  it  tora(M  itra  =  Zd.  Mithrai,  In  da-ra  Indra- Gk. 
andros  in  the  sense  of  a  strong  man).  U-ra-wanu  i  Varuna  ^  Gk. 
uraausi,  Na  sa  at  attiya  (Nasatya  =  KU.  Nastasija*  are  found  as 
witnesses  Risyasriaga  episode  and  flood  legend  seem  to  have 
been  borrowed  from  first  and  eleven  tablets  of  the  Gilganesh 
epic  of  C.  -^OOO-eSO  B.C. 


"Erech  is  besieged  by  her  dread  foes,  and  she  at  last  must 
feel  Akkad's  -  Agad's  woes,  and  feed  the  vanity  of  conquerors  who  boast  of 
victories  in  all  their  wars.  Great  Subartu  iS.  .Amenia  =  Suvastu  = 
Swat  in  N  W.P.  named  after  it)  has  fallen  by  Sutu  (Soyot  ;  Sula, 
Satvata  ;  Sata  -  Vahana)  ;  Kassi  (Akkad  Kas3i  =  Ir.  Kassoi^pl. 
Kassip  =  Gk.  Kaspai  ■=  Scythic  Caspii  =  Kashshites  =  Kassites  =  Kfisyapa. 
Kusa,  Ktiasa.  Kusliiya),  Guci  iGudeans  =  Kurds  =  G  idhi  =  Guda,  Gudan) 
and  Lul  lu-bu  (LuUubi),  all  have  fallen  in  their  hands  (Tab.  1, 
Col.  2).  Gilgamesh,  the  king  has  a  dream  which  En  -  Kidu  Mudi 
(seer)  might  explain,  and  the  Pa  te-si  (ruleri  sends  two  maidt-ns 
Sam-kha-tu  (joyi,  Kha-rimatu  (seduction)  to  fetch  the  seer."  Before 
a  cave  within  Gab  ri  wild,  the  seer  is  resting  on  a  rock  beside  a 
pool  within  a  rocky  glen,  exiled  hy  his  own  will  from  all  the 
haunts  of  men.  There  Sam-kha  went  and  over  the  sleeping  setr  her 
blooming  charming  form  she  bent  ;  over  him  who  with  gazelles 
(tsalis),  antelopes  (bur-kh;-is»,  spotted  stags  (na-a-li)  oft  eats  his 
fojd  ;  over  him  who  drinks  with  lions  nesii  and  wild  goats  (arme)  in 
the  wood  and  sports  with  them  wiihin  the  mountain  streams.  She 
clasped  him  to  her  breast  and  kissed  his  brow  The  seer  awakes 
and  with  delight  gazes  at  her  beautious  form.  iMy  mission  is  fulfilled  ; 
sweet  Zir-ru  water  nymph)  comes  to  me  with  fragrant  breath  ;  with 
voluptujus  smiles  she  flies  ;  to  sport  with  him  does  she  choose 
He  springs  upon  his  feet  and  her  pursues.  She  coquetishly  comes 
and  enfold-i  him  in  her  arms.  From  her  soft  liquid  eyes  love  light 
speaks  and  by  her  voluptujus  clasp  she  awakes  in  him  by  her 
touch  a  thrill  of  wild  desire  until  his  blood  seems  like  molten 
fire.  HuT  eyes  half  cloied  begat  a  passion  wild  with  her  warm 
breasts  her  embrace  has  beguiled.  All  his  firm  resolves  to  seek  no 
more  a  joy  which  passed  and  left  his  heart  forlorn,  are  breaking 
and  vanishing  beneath  her  charms.  'My  inside  is  burning  and 
throbbing  f  Jr  thy  virile  thrusts "  A  prize  like  this  a  heart  of  stone 
would  move,  and  he  enfolded  her  wiili  his  arms  till  their  bodies 
and  organs  in  o  le  thrilling  rapture  moved  Tab.  3,  Col  4i.  And 
thus  E;i-ki  du  was  brought  to  Erech.  In  Alambusha  Jitaka  523, 
we  find  thit  a  Mri^i  (Margian  woman  =Per3.  Marga.  inhabiting  in 
the  oasis  of  Merv  on  the  R  Margus  ;  Yt  46  14.  Magai  =  Magus  of 
Achaemenian  inscriptions,  a  name  of  Saka  Maga,  Vishnu  P.  2,  4,  69  ;  in 
MBh.  1.  IK,  Klsyapa's  semen  mixed  with  water  drunk  by  a  thirsty  Mrigi- 
doe)  eating  grass  which  was  wet  with  urine  by  a  thirsty  Mrigl 
and  semen  {Sambhava)  of  Kasyapa,  became  pregnant  and  gave  birth 
to  a  human  child  who  was  adopted  by  Kasyapa  who  named  it 
Isi-Singa     (Rishya-Sringa  =  amorous     of    a  doe  ;   a    rock   engraving  at 


32  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIBNI  INDIA 

Ila  (Matsya  P.  24.  9)  or  Aila  (Bv.  X.  95.  7)  Puru-ravas  are 
Illyroi  =  Illyrians.  Illyrians  were  hypsibrachycephalic  brunet 
Dineric  Alpines  with  perpendicular  back  of  the  head,  oval  face, 
abundant  growth  of  beard,  prominent  nose.  It  is  very  likely  that 
the  Khattis  =- Alia  Puru  =  Ir.  i'arsa  Xsayatia.  mixed  with  Saka 
people  —  Hakamanasiya  -  belonged  to  this  tribe.  Other 
prominent  Illyrians  were  Brygi,  Bessi  and  Dassaratae.  Illyrians 
tattowed,  thus  being  distinguished  from  the  Kelts  who  lived 
with  them  in  Illyria  and  Thracia.  Their  gods  were  Dionysus 
(Deva  Nahusa),  Ares  (  Sara  i,  Bendis  =- Ruftesh  i  Artemis).  They 
allowed  their  girls  complete  license  until  marriage. 

Kupgullu  Hill  near  Bcllery  snow  a  man,  having  stick  in  his  right 
hand,  with  an  exagj;erated  penis,  copulating  with  a  standing  doe). 
Adolescent  Rishya-Sringa  seeing  the  courtesan  Alumbusha  praised 
her  beauty  from  head  to  feet,  her  bright  complexion,  pretty  face. 
wide  open  eyes,  coral-red  lips,  long  neck,  shining  teeth,  well-shaped  nates 
{nitamha),  round  thighs,  twin  breasts  like  pumpkin  halves  without 
stalks,  yet  firmly  set,  wide  vaulted  monsveneris  and  vulva  (vedika;  covered 
with  such  thick  lotus  filamented  hairs  that  it  appears  from  distance 
as  if  painted  with  black  coUyrium.  Alambusha  said  :  Kassapa,  good 
fellow,  why  should  we  waste  our  time  by  idle  talks  like  tnis  Let 
us  copulate  in  thy  hermitage  and  enjoy  erotic  tricks  (ratinam. 
kusalo).  Yet  to  stimulate  his  libido,  she  pretended  to  flee  ;  and 
the  hermit  ran  after  her  and  caught  hold  of  her  by  her  long  flying 
tresses.  In  Nalinika  Jataka  (52o),  Nalinika  dancea  before  Rishya- 
Sringa  with  a  bounching  ball  (kanduka)  in  her  hand  in  such 
a  way  as  to  display  her  bodily  charms  as  well  as  of  her  private 
parts  (ahgani  guhyami  ;  and  when  she  sat,  she  lay  down  in  such  a 
way  as  to  make  visible  the  inside  of  her  vagina.  Surprised  at  the 
sight,  he  exclaimed  :  what  is  that  snail-mouth  like  dark  thing 
(sippi-mukha  kanhar  iva)  deep  down  thy  thighs  :  what  has- 
happed  to  thy  excellent  organ  (uttam  -  angam  =  penis)  !  While  in  a 
forest,  a  terrible  bear  fell  me  down  and  tore  it  away  and  with  its 
raouih  and  claws  has  created  this  deep  wound  which  is  causing 
constant  pruritis  ;  if  you  rub  it  with  your  pleasure  rod,  my 
pruritus  will  be  appeased,  and  I  shall  be  delighted."  "Yes  thy 
wound  is  deep  and  reddish,  but  without  suppuration  So  he  was- 
induced  to  coition,  which  he  found  delightful  and  relaxing". 
Similarly  in  Passionate  Pilgrim,  Venus  seduced  Adonis,  but  she  said 
that  her  wound  deep  down  her  thighs  was  caused  by  a  boar. 
Perhaps  the  seduction  drama  like  this  was  a  kind  of  fertility  rite, 
popular  in  ancient  times.'  Jhisa  (fish)  said  to  Manu  :  In  such  and 
such  a  year  the  flood  will  come ;  prepare  a  ship.  And  when  the 
flood  has  arisen,  I  shall  save  them.  When  the  flood  came,  he 
entered  into  the  ship,  and  carried  him  swiftly  up  to  a  northern, 
mountain."— Sata  Patha  Br  1,  8-1  ;  Matsya  P.  12.  It  is  the  same- 
thing  as  the  Deluge  and  Flood  Legend,  found  in  the  ilth  tablet 
of  Gilgamesh  Epic  and  in  the  Bible.  It  seems  also  that  the  Indians 
and  Iranians  borrowed  from  the  Semites  the  custom  of  isolating, 
menstruating  and  parturient  women  and  their  purifying  baths,  though 
these  Taboos  prevail  also  amonst  many  savage  and  primitive  peoples. 


KHAITIS— BHRIGUh— DDRHYU8  88 

Khattis  occupied  Asia  Minor  by  18th  Century  B.G,  Sauro 
Matae  Dassaratae  became  Syrian  Mitanni  Dusaratta,  and  Surya 
(vamsaja)  Dasaiatha  of  Ayodh\a  and  iSaura  Mithili  of  Mithila. 
Khatti  sun-goddess  like  tlia  mother-goddess  of  Crete  was  the 
centre  of  worship.  The  Khatti  king  after  I6uO  B.  C.  used  to 
be  addressed  as  '7ny  sun\  Bessi  became  Vaisya  of  Vai&ali. 
Mixed  with  the  Kelts,  iirygi  became  known  as  Bryges.  Bryges 
later  known  as  Plirygios=  I'hrygians  wi-ested  the  northern  coast 
of  Asia  Minor  from  the  Khattis  and  they  made  Troy  their  ca[)ital. 
They  knew  only  the  uses  of  bronze  up  to  that  time  for  otlence 
and  defence.  The  Achaean  (^Ikshvakn)  confederacy  fell  upon  the 
Phrygian  froy,  armed  with  iron  instruments,  and  conquered  it. 
Thus  Bryges  =>  Phrygios  were  pushed  south,  and  they  in  their 
turn  broke  down  the  Khattis.  Bryges  became  known  as  Bhrigus 
who  wore  their  hair  like   a   mane — Kesara   prabandah. 

Bhrigu  Usanas  (Bryges  mixed  with  Ausones)  became  the 
priest  of  Daitya  (Keltic  Datti,  Bab.  Dutai\  Danava  (Uanoi-  Bib. 
Danans)  and  Asuias  ,Asshura- Assyrian '.  He  had  a  pretty 
daughter -Deva-yani  (on  whom  the  gods  ride  ).  Brihas  pati's 
(Breuci  =■  Brahui  chief)  son  =  successor  Kaca  (  Koch  Baloch  = 
Baluchis  from  which  Cutch  has  been  named  =>  Kutzo-Vlachs 
Armunes- Slav.  Voloch  =  Kut6a  Vahlika  Arjuna)  came  to  Usanas 
to  learn  from  him  reviviscence  =  Sanjivani  Vidya  ;  Uevayani 
fell  in  love  with  Kaca,  but  he  cowardly  refused  to  marry  her. 
This  Kaca-Devayani  love  episode  is  described  as  a  romance  in 
many  of  the  epics.  D.ivayani  married  Yayati.  son  of  Nahusa 
(Noah,  Naahi)  who  also  consorted  with  Devayaui's  comrade 
Asura  princess  bJarmista.  According  to  traditions,  Devayani 
became  the  progenitress  of  Yadu  (U-ran  =  Yautiya  of  Bahistan 
inscription  =  Idadu-in-Shushinak  of  An3am  =  Yadava  Seshanaga 
=  Sishunag  of  Ginbraja)  and  Turvasu  /Tauri  Bessi)  ;  Saimishta 
of  Druhyu  (Durhani  =  Druse  =■  Dorus),  Ann  lAnue  of  Sumer  of 
of  Anaa  origin)  and  Puru  (Par^a  =Purush  Khatti),  all  Armenoida. 
They  reached  India  through  Baluchistan,  and   through   the   sea. 

Durhyus  (Durhani i  occupied  Afghanistan;  Yadavas,  the 
Yamuna  basin.  The  Purus  pushed  their  way  to  the  Ganga- 
Doab  ;  Sibis  (Saba  =  Sabaeans  ;  or  Sibos  of  the  Hi  region)  settled 
in  the  Sibi  Valley  of  Baluchistan.  Keltic  Sequani,  Pictones, 
Ausones,  Quadi  iBab.  Gudea  ^  Gudii,  Arvii,  iVJattiaci.  babmi, 
Magelli,  Brittas.  Vagienni,  Trinobantes,  Achaeoi,  Boii  occupied 
as  Sakuni  of  Uttarapatha  (Vayu  P.  88.  8-11  -,  Gandhara  =  Kanda- 
har ,  and  Videha),  Paktuns  of  N.  W.  P.,  Usanas  of  the  Punjab, 
Gadhi  and  Urva  of  Kanyakubja,  Matsya  of  Virata,  Cyavana  of 
Pancala,  Moggali  iana=of  •  Moggali-puta^  Banskntized  as 
Mudgala)    of  Pancala   and    Bihar,     jBharataa    between  the   river 


There   were   about   72   Keltic   nations,     consisting     of  5(X)      tribes ; 
a   group   of  clans   formed   a   tribe   and   several  tribes  a  nation.  i 

a 


34  THE  LITERARY  HISrORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

basias,  Vajjis  of  Vaisali,  Trinavindu  of  Trihut,  Ikshvakus  (  Pali 
Okkaka)  and  Bahu  of  Ayodhya.  Dacis  of  Pantalia,  Finno- 
Ugrians  as  Ugri  (Uigurs),  Soyot,  Tatars  Voguls,  Andkhuis, 
and  other  Huns  and  Scyths  occupied  Pancala  as  Divo-Dasa, 
and  later  as  Su-Dasa  or  Sodas  Kalmasapada  who  also  occupied 
Ayodhya  ,  Ugra  sena  of  A.gra  region  and  Ugra  ayudha  Brahma- 
dattas  of  Baranasi  and  Bihar ;  Satvatas,  Tittiri,  Bhoja  and 
Andhakas  of  Yadavas  ;  Suta  Magadha  (  Machas=»  Magi  ); 
Suta  Adhiratha  of  Anga  j  Kichaka  (  Kazak  )  is  called  Suta- 
putra.  MBh,  Virat  23.  4  ;  Suta  Lomaharsana,  the  chronicler  of 
the  Paranas,  is  called  Ugra-sravas  =  the  glory  of  (Jgras  — Ugri. 

Haihaya  (Hio-hui)  Tala  Janghas  'who  were  Abtelite  Vetfvlas, 
To-liong  ki,  Hun  tribes.  Harsa  Gharita  6,  Vetala-Chin.  Yita  — 
Yau-tan-i  lito«=  Ephthalites— White  Huns)  with  Sakas,  Kambo- 
jas  I  a  clan  of  the  Sakas.  Kamuia-Ir.  Kambuja  (Cambyses)  = 
Kambohoa  of  W.  Punjab),  Yavanas  (  lonians  ),  Paradas  (Saka 
Paraidroya  — Afridi  )  and  Pahlavas  (  Pehiavis  =  Parthava8  — 
Pa^thian8  )  defeated  Bahu,  and  Sagara  (  Sagara-ulai^  Saka 
chiefs),  occupied  Ayodhya  and  Himalayan  foothills  (Kapilavastu)  ; 
Vatsa  Pratardhana  (  known  also  as  Ruadhvaja  ;  his  son  Alarka 
was  born  of  his  union  with  Madalasa,  an  Asva-sena  Naga 
maiden  of  Varanasi),  Marutta  and  Dusyanta  (  Murut  and  Dusun 
of  Borneo  \  Sasada,  Sasa-vindu  ( Sassak  of  Lambok  and  Bali), 
Kanakas  (Polynesian  Kanaka)  with  the  aid  of  Sakunis,  Usanas, 
Asva-sena  ^  Sarmatian  Asioiland  Sagara  (Sagartii)  arrested  and 
drove  the  Haihaya  Talajangha  Vitihotras.  Though  Dusyanta 
was  married  to  Sakuntala,  a  Sequani  princess,  their  territories 
were  overran  by  Bbaratas,  due  it  is  said  to  the  influence  of 
Durva8as=  Parthian  Derbicae,  and  Bharat-Vajas  (formed  by  the 
cross  cousin  marriage  of  Bharatas  and  Vajins.  Pallavas  of  Kanchi 
claimed  to  be  of  Bharadvajas).  Haihaya  Talajanghas  (which 
comprised  of  five  tribes  Sarayatis,  Bhojas  (Voguls),  Avantis 
(Hun  Ho-hun  to)  and  Vitihotras  ?  Matsya  P.  4Hi,  occupied 
Avanti,  named  after  them.  The  union  and  separation  of 
Dusyanta  and  Sakuntala,  and  their  succession  by  Bharata.  have 
been  dramatized  in  MBh,  1.72  and  by  Kalidasa.  Sasa  vindu, 
Marutta,  Kanaka,  Usanas,  Sakuni  were  absorbed  in  the  Yadava 
Haihaya  confederacy  ;  their  names  are  found  in  the   ruling  list. 

Ho  hunto  (Avanti),  To-liong-ki  (T&lajanga),  Ab-tel-ites  =  Ephthalites 
(Vetalas).  Kosik  (Kusika),  Ku-lim  (Kulins),  Hiao-Hui  (Haihayas), 
Ki-tsa  (Kutsa),  0-Jen-te  (Ajantas),  Kak,  Toki  (Turkish  Doghri  = 
Dogra),  Tan  -  hu  =  (Dhanva).  Holanki  (Sslanki),  Hu-Jen  (Ujjani), 
Uigurs  (Ugra)  are  Hun  clans, — Die  Huntten  der  Vorchrilich  en  Ztit  ' 
J.  J  M.  De  Groot,  Leipzig  1921.  Khalka  =  KaIki ;  Kuci  =  Kauseya  ,  Yen- 
ki  -  Agni ;  U  nco  -  U-go  =  Uraga. 


KURU  PANDAVAS  35 

Next  came  long  waves  of  invasions  of  Sauro-Matae  and 
other  Sarmatian  and  8lavic  tribes  like  Jmoud,  Kors  and  Krivichi 
of  Kurland,  Wends,  Kutzo  Vlachs  Armunes,  Bessi,  Basiiii 
who  as  Sauro  Mithilis  occupied  INIithila  ;  Vaisili  Visala, 
Vaisyas  Ba^ya  ;  Jaraadagnis.  northern  India  ;  Kuru-Krivis, 
Kurn-Kshetra  with  Hasfcinapnr  as  their  capital  ;  Pandus  fought 
for  the  posse.ssion  of  the  Kuru  kingdom  ;  but  Pandu  was 
compelled  to  mgrate  south  where  the  Pandu  (Wends  =  Venedae 
-Gens  Pandae  of  Pliny  G,  76-Gk.  Pandeon'  established  a 
kingdom  with  IVIadharai,  a  colony  of  the  Maedi  Danoi  like 
Mathara  which  is  also  reputed  to  have  been  founded  by 
Madhu  Danava  as  the  capital.  But  the  Pandu  partisans 
finally  won  a  decisive  victory  over  the  Kurus. 

Bhrigus  were  oppressed  by  Kutsa  Krita-Virya  Vahlika  Arjana 
[included  among  Haihaya  Huna  Tala  Janga  hordes  =  Katzo  Vlach 
Armunes)  with  the  help  of  Atreyas  ;  but  they  were  befriended 
by  Jamad  Agnis  and  Sodas  Kaimasapada.  When  Bhfigu 
Utanka  returning  home  with    a    pair   of  valuable    earrings  as  a 

Hastinapur  mound  rises  about  50  ft.  above  the  surrounding  ground 
evel,  covering  an  area  about  a  mile  long,  now  five  miles  to  the  east  of 
;he  Gang  I.  Painted  grey  ware -wheel  turned  bowls  and  dishes 
ivith  black  simple  bands  round  the  rim  both  inside  and  out  side- 
lave  been  found  at  Hastinvpur  I,  also  in  upper  Ganga  and  Ghaggar 
)asins  of  ab)ut  900-1000  B  C.  The  houses  were  made  of  mud  and 
iamboo.  A  thin  copper  shallow  dish  has  also  been  found,  but  no 
ron.  When  8-10  ft-  occupational  deposits  were  accumulated,  a 
^reat  flood  of  the  Gangi  destroyed  Hastinapur  I  about  seventh 
:entury  B  C.  Hastinapur  II  and  Kausambi  on  the  Yamuna,  about 
^0  miles  N  E.  of  Pray^g  were  built  about  6th  century  B.C.  A  highly 
polished  northern  Black  Ware,  jet  black  or  steel  blue  in  colour, 
las  been  found  in  both  places.  Houses  were  of  sun-dried  bricks 
mth  well-constructed  burnt-brick  drains.  Individual  houses  had 
:heir  own  soakage  arrangement  in  the  form  of  long  perforated  jars, 
alaced  vertically  one  over  the  other  in  a  deep  pit.  There  were 
lome  drainage  pits  made  of  terracotta  rings,  measuring  2  ft.  in 
iiameter.  Iron  has  been  noted  ;  also  coins  of  oblong  or  square 
)ieces  of  beaten  silver  or  copper,  bearing  punched  marks.  Buddha 
ibout  500  B  C  visited  Kausambi  when  Udayana  was  ruling  there. 
\  large  scale  fire  destroyed  the  entire  Hastinapur  II  Burnt  walls 
ind  floors,  charcoal  remains  of  bamboos,  reeds  and  matting  can  be 
leen  in  almost  every  part  of  the  layer.  The  occupation  of 
Hfastinipur  III  began  early  in  2nd  century  B.  C.  as  Sunga  and 
Vlitra  coins  have  been  found  in  the  level  ;  also  moulded  Sunga 
erracotta  figurines.  The  structures  were  now  built  mainly  of  burnt 
jricks  This  period  ended  with  Kushan  Vasudeva  of  2nd  century 
\.  D.  i  and  a  Kushan  terracotta  Bodhisattva  Maitreya  has  been 
ound,  and  the  attitude  recalls  the  Mathura  school  of  sculpture  of 
2-3th  century  A.  D  Balban  1266  87  of  the  Slave  Dynasty  of  Delhi 
ebuilt  with  the  brickbats  of  the  ruins  ;  again  it  ceased  to  exist  ia 
L4th  century.     Lai,  Arch.  Survey  of  India  in  I  L  N  Oct.  4,  1952. 


86  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT   INDIA^ 

gift  from  Sodas  and  his  wife  M"adayaati.  he  was  interrupted  by 
Airavata  Kara  Nagas  [MBh.  i-l.  57-58).  Sodas  was  defeated; 
by  the  combined  forces  of  the  Kurus  Asmakas  (Comi>, 
Parasaras  (Parairae).  Asmaka  occupied  Ayodhya  throne  and; 
Parasara  chief  took  Madayanti  and  made  a  slave  of  her  sow 
Sarvakai-man=Kifcuparna  (MBh.  12.49  76).  Pandavas  were: 
1,  Yadhisthira  of  white  yellow  complexion,  large  eyes,  prominent 
nose,  tall  and  slender  {MBh.  '6.16d\  identified  with  Yaudheyas 
(  MBh.     1.95)  =  Ugra  Ayudhas  =  U-Tan  Yufeii  -  Yutia  =  defender  ; 

2  Kutsa   Arjuna«  Arjunayana  =  Ki-tsa  =  Kutzo    Vlach  Armunes  ;^ 

3  Bhima-Sena=  Vimakas,  an  allied  tribe  of  Finno-Ugrian 
Udumbaras  or  Vima  Kadphises,  a  Kushan  Yaksha  =  Yuechi 
clan;  4  Nakula  ( Gk.  Nicolaus,  having  a  victorious  armyi  ; 
5.  Saha  deva  ^  Parthian  Saion  or  Saudas  Miti-a-Saha  Kalmasapada. 
These  five  Huna  chiefs  made  a  treaty   alliance   with    Drupada  = 

Polyandry  still  prevails  amunst  VVahuna  of  K.  Africa,  Ceylonese, 
Tibetans  and  Nayars.  Matriarchical  polyandry  amonst  Karavazhi 
Pulaya,  Ptalean  Mathuvan,  Mannas  of  Travancore.  Fraternal  polyandry 
amonst  Malayarayan,  Ullaton,  Urali,  S.  Pulayas,  Parayas  of 
Travancore,  Santals,  Bhuiyas,  Kandhas,  Oraons,  Karkus  of  C.  I. 
Todas,  Kurambas,  Badagas,  Kamraalans,  Kalians  of  S,  Madras. 
Marriage  between  brothers  and  sisters  in  ancient  Egypt,  Hattis,  Iran,  Peru, 
and  Hawalli  amonst  the  nobles.  But  amonst  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
marriage  was  not  definitely  concluded  until  after  a  trial  year. 
Consin  Marriage  :  Muthuvans,  Mannans,  Malankurvans  ;  but  marriage 
with  the  daughters  of  father's  sisters  prohibited.  Monogamous- 
weddings  take  place  at  night  amonst  Malopulayas,  Muthuvans, 
Mannans,  Polyars  and  Malapantarans  to  protect  the  bride  and 
bridegroom  against  evil  eyes.  A  Urali  marries  as  many  women  as  he  has- 
sisters  in  exchange.  Sororate  Marriage  in  which  all  the  sisters  are  regarded 
as  the  wives  of  the  man  who  marries  the  eldest  of  them  prevails  also  amonst 
Lepchas,  Uralis,  Ulathatans  and  Mannaes.  Amonst  Vellalas  iKavundian  of 
Coimbatore.  Reddi  of  Tinnevelly,  Badagas,  Malay  is),  the  father  of  the 
family  marries  for  his  youngest  son  a  grown  up  girl  with  whom  he 
has  sexual  relation  as  with  Ossetes.  Marriage  by  capture  :  Mithuvans 
and  Mannans  of  Travancore  ;  Malayalis  of  N.  Arcot,  Mull 
Kurumban,  VViynar,  Gonds  of  C.  1.  Marriage  by  service  ;  Polyans 
and  Mannans  of  Travancore,  Marriage  by  exchange  of  sisters  : 
Ullatans,  Vishavans,  Malapantaram  of  Travancore  ;  Urali,  Madigas  ; 
Bhotias  of  Almarah.  Nephews  of  Polygans,  Muthuvans,  Poliyans. 
Kanikkars,  Malayaryans,  Malapuliyas  inherit  the  youngest  wife  of 
their  uncles  and  keeps  the  aunt  as  their  wife.  Amonst  the  Garos, 
sisters  son  comes  to  live  in  the  house  as  the  husband  of  one  of 
the  maternal  uncle's  daughters,  and  when  he  dies  marries  also  his 
widow.  "As  birds  seek  with  avidity  for  meat  that  is  left  on  the 
ground,   so   men     solicit     a   woman     who   has     no     husband." — M    Bh. 

1,  159.  Apasthambha  Darma  Sutra  2,10,27  of  Andhra  Taitareya  Aranyaka  : 
A  bride  is  given  to  the  family  of  her  husband,  and  not  to  the  husband 
alone.     A  woman,  remaining  at  home,  unmarried,  was  called   Amajur,  Rv. 

2.  17.  7.  By  scholarship,  a  maiden  wins  a  youth  as  her  husband,  Av  xi, 
5,  18.     Brahmacaryena  Kanya  yuvanam  vindate  patim. 


KURU-PANDAVA  ALLIB8  87 

Dru  pa  a  Tibetan  (Tibet  is  also  called  Huna-desa)  on  the 
northern  slope  on  Gan^a  dvara  (source  of  GJanga  -  Qanga- 
Chu,  4U-100  ft.  in  breadth  jrenerally  durinfr  the  Burnmer  and 
'6  miles  in  leni^th  in  its  meandering  course  from  Manasaravara 
(Tao  INIaham  ;  elevation  14950  ft,  :  circumferance  64  miles, 
coverin}:{  about  200  sq.  miles  ,  depth  of  water  800  ft.)  flowing 
into  Rakshas  Tal  (Lan^ak  Tso  ;  elevation  14900  ;  circum- 
ferance 140  miles  ;  depth  about  I'lO  ft.  on  the  northern  side  ; 
east,  S.  W.  N.  coasts  are  18,  12  28^,  3.J  miles  in  length  and 
17  miles  north  to  south  and  1'-^  miles  east  and  west  at  the 
maximum  parts),  married  his  daughter  Drupidi  jointly  in  a 
polyandrous  manner  as  customary  with  the  Tibetans,  Massa- 
Getae,  Yue-chi,  Tu  hua-lo  — Tochari  and  Hua  fluns,  to  avoid 
•divisions  of  property  and  succession  disputes.  In  Armenia 
(Strabo  12)  priestesses  were  permitted  to  practise  polyandry. 
In  Media  a  woman  boasting  of  five  husbands  was  honoured. 

Besides  Drupadas.  Paudavas  s-^cured  the  aid  of  Matsya 
(Mattiacii.  Somaka  (Comii,  Andhaka  lAndkkhui)  Vasudeva. 
Vidura  (lonely,  deserted,  as  vidu  ;  Badara  Badarayana) 
was  apparentlv  neutral.  Kuru-Kamboja  (MBh.  6"45)  allies 
■were:  Duryodhana  (lUyrian  Dardanii  ;  Darada— Dards  ;  his 
sister  Duhsala- Drusilla,  sister  consort  of  Roman  emperor 
Caligula);  Vikarna  (Ir  Varkana  -  Russian  Varecks— Keltic 
Varciani),  Citrasena(Parth.  Catarsene),  Surasenas- Parth.  Syra 
cene,  8anjaya— Srinjayas  —  Srangakas  =  Saka  Saranga  on  the 
Western  Indus  — Zaranka  of  Darius,  Kama  =  Parth.  Karen  of 
Keltic  Kami  origin  who  occupied  Anga  desa.  Salya  =  Keltic 
Salyes  who  occupied  Mt  Abu  region,  Sakuni  =  Gallic  Sequani  — 
Italic  Sicani  -  yiginni  of  Caucasus.  BharatVajas  under  Droua. 
Kripa  of  Krivi  clan  =  .Lith.  Krivi  chi-  h"o  Kuru  Pandava  war 
was  a  contest  for  supremacy  between  the  Finno-Ugrian 
Sarmatian  Scyths  and  Hun  Parthian  hordes.  In  the  Hajasuya 
ceremony  the  Pandavas  received  many  valuable  presents  from 
numerous  chiefs,  particularly  of  Scythianized  hordes  Kambojas 
(Kambuia  =  Kambohas  of  West  Punjab,  an  allied  8aka  clan  of 
ihe  Kurus)  brought  many  pretty  furs,  fine  woven  light  blan- 
kets and  excellent  horses  ;  Sudras  (Pr.  Sudd  -  Chude -Chin 
■Chous)  brought  many  slender  yellow-coloured  slave  girls  with 
fine  long  hair  (  the  wooly  hair  of  the  Negro  is  short  and  curly, 
set  in  a  curved  follicle  and  flat  in  section  ;  the  straight  lank 
liair  of  the  Mongolian  and  Australoid  is  round  in  section,  long 
«,nd  coarse  ;  the  wavy  hair  of  the  Alpines  is  set  in  a  straight 
follicle,  usually  longer  in  females  than  in  males  )  on  the  head, 
decorated  with  gold  ornaments,  from  the  Caspian  Sea  region. 
Abhiras-Avar,  Kiratas  (Keraits,  a  dominant  people  of  Mongolia) 
brought  numerous  cattle;  many  Nara  vakshakas  (Androphagi) 
came  from  the  Oxus  region  with  valuable  tributes  ;  the 
Chinese,    Saka   (Chin.   Sek-Lat.    Sacce)  Barbara    (Berbers)  and 


38  THE  LITBRABY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Haya  Hunas  (Chinese  Hiia  Huangnu)  brought  many  soft;  light 
clothes,  made  from  the  filaments  of  worms  (silk)  ;  Saka. 
Tukharas  (Tocharis  =  Little  Yue-Chis  who  had  red  hair 
and  blue  eyes  as  depicted  at  Turfan)  brought  many  arms  ^ 
Khasa  (Khos)  Pulinda  (Powindah),  Parada  (Paraidroya  — 
Afridi),  Tungana  (Chin.  Tung  — hu-Tungus)  brought  a 
large  quantity  of  gold  dug  out  by  ants  (a  kind  of 
burrowing  marmot ;  Herodotus  also  mention  gold  digging  anta 
larger  than  foxes,  smaller  than  dogs)  MBh.  2.  60-51.  In, 
MBh.  2,  159,  b.T  Andhras,  Palindas  (there  was  another  Pulinda 
clan  associated  with  Veddha  Yakkas),  Yavanas,  Kambojas, 
Vahlikas,  Sndras  and  Abhiras  are  regarded  as  allied  Saka. 
clans,  Kuru  Arastisena,  Rv.  X.  98  =  Parth.  Aracticene  -, 
Pratipa  — Aparytes   of   Herodotus  8.  91. 

Arjunayana  Parikshita  became  the  Pandava  sovereign. 
But  he  was  killed  by  Takshakas  (Tocharis).  And  his  son. 
Janamejaya  waged  a  relentless  war  against  Takshakas,  and 
Taksha-sila  (Lat.  silex\  their  strong  hold,  was  captured. 
Airavata  Jaratkarna  Sarpa  (Sherpa  of  N.  Nepal)  of  the. 
Kurus  married  a  Vasuki-Tura  Vesaki.  Yt.  15.  35  (Uzbeg) 
princess  ;  and  their  ally  Astika  (Astica  of  Thracia  ;  or- 
Ugrian-speaking  Ostiak)  brought  reconciliation  between. 
Janamejaya  and  Vasukhis,  Uraga  (Scythian  Urgi  — U-go>  and 
Takshakas  (MBh.  i.  b8  ;  2lf^,  4S-49).  But  as  he  antago- 
nized Baramas  (Ir.  Sarima  =  Sarmatae)  and  Kasyapa  Ugras- 
(Ugri'=  Uigurs),  Kaksha-Sena  (Czechs)  remaining  in  occupation 
only  in  parts  (MBh.  1,  91,  54),  Ugras,  including  Sudra, 
Abhira,  Licchavis  (Niu-Chi)  and  Karkota  Nagas  (Kar- 
Kitan   Nogai     Tatars),    Pallava      Mallas     occupied      the     rest. 

Karkotas  occupied  Kashmir ;  as  Newars  of  Nepal,  as 
Malavas,  Karkota  Nagara  in  Jaiypur  and  Malwa,  Nagar^ 
Brahmans  of  Gujerat.  and  Nayars  of  Travancore.  Compare 
Andhra  queen  Naganika  —  Nayanika.  Pallava  Mallas,  Nogai  Tatars, 


Nair  soldiers  came  to  Nepal  in  the  train  of  KarnUa  Chalukya 
king  Nandadeva  who  invaded  the  valley  of  Nepal  in  9th  century 
A.  D  and  there  Huna  Nayars  settled  as  Newars. 

There  are  more  than  1200  inscriptions  in  India  anterior  to  400  A  D., 
and  from  400  700  A  D.  700  inscriptions  are  known  in  N  India.  700  in 
S  India.  600  in  Kanara  and  about  1000  inseriptions  in  VV.  India.  To 
Asoka  alone  is  ascribed  15^  inscriptions.  Makki  :  "<9/  Devanampiya^ 
Asoka,  two  and  half  years,  I  am  a  Buda  of  Sakas.  Longer  I  have  visited 
the  Sangha  and  have  been  a  devout.  The  gods  of  Jambu  dvipa  are  now 
mixed,  though  formerly  unmixed  The  object  can  be  reached  by  any 
low  person  who  is  devoted  to  morality"  A  Chalukya  inscription  of 
Jagodek  Malla  (Saka  949' calls  Maski  Rajadhani  piriya  Mosangi  =  the 
royal  residence  of  great  Mosangi.  Rummin  dei  and  Sagar  pillar  inscrip- 
tions exhibit  devanampriyah  priyadarsi  raja.  Bairat  rock  inscription, 
priyadarsi   raja.     Barabar   Hill  Cave,   raja  priyadarsi.      Dipavamsa  call& 


ABOEA's  IhSORIPTIONS  8Q 

coming  through  Rajputana,  leaving  behind  Mulawa  dialect, 
settled  in  Malava  ;  penetrating  through  Bihar  they  became 
known   as    Mallas   of     Pava ;     they     occupied     the     South     as 


Asok^  piyaddssi  and  ptyadassana,  Mudrfi  R'lksasa  calls  CandaSiri  — 
Maurya  Candra  Gupta,  piadamsana.  At  the  request  of  Moriya  Devfinam- 
pia  Tissa  (247-207  B.  C),  Asoka  sent  his  son  Mahinda  and  daughter 
Sangamittri,  born  of  Vedisa  Mahadevi  Asandimittfi  a  Sakyan.  whose  fore- 
father migrated  to  Vedisa  to  escape  the  oppression  of  Virudabh,  son  of 
Prasenjit  of  KosaU,  as  he  and  Asoka  belonged  to  the  same  race. 
Sangamittv  became  the  wife  of  Asoka's  sister's  son  Aggi  (Agni)  Brahman 
and  mother  of  Sumana.  At  the  end  of  the  tiiree  Mysore  Edicts,  /t'/i  kuran-i 
in  Kharosthi  character,  is  observed.  Two  Kharosthi  versions  instead 
of ///>/■  use  ^/// which  IS  found  in  Achaemenian  inscriptions.  Instead  of 
lekhita,  likhapiti,  Shahboz^ai  uses  nif>esiia-Vtxs.  nipish  =  to  write, 
Asoka's  brothsr-in-law  was  Vavana  lafter  the  lonians.  philo-Hellenic  Sakag 
and  Parthians,  and  later  Persians  were  called  Yavanas)  Tushnspa.  the 
governor  of  Girnar.  a  Saka  name  like  Keresaspa  or  Vistaspa.  father  of 
Darius.  Darius  inscription  :  imam  dipim  nipishtanaiy  ;  Asoka  :  ai 
dhamma  dipi  nipista.  Thatiya  Daraya  Vaush  Ksayathiya- thus  said 
Kshatriya  ruler  Darius  ;  Devanam  priyo  priyadasi  rji  evam  aha  iGirnar 
5tn  rock  inscription  )=  Thus  speaks  good  looking  king,  beloved  of  the 
God.  Patanjili's  Mahabhisya  1.19  mentions  Candragupta  Sahha. 
Candra  Gupta  Maurya  (316-296  B.  C.  Sandroeottus  of  the  Greeks)  was 
connected  with  Seleucus  I  Nicotor  of  Syria  by  intermarriage,  and  he 
sent  Megasthenes  as  his  ambassador  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Bindusara  (286  -269  B  C  )  Amitra  ghata  (Patanjali  on  Panini  3.  2.  87  ; 
slayer  of  foes  ;  amritaghatin  title  of  kings.  MBh.  3.2  2)  -  Amitro 
chates  by  Athenaeus)  asked  .Antiochus  Soter  (  28i-?6l  B.C  ),  son  of 
Seleucus  to  send  besides  wine  and  figs  a  sophist  so  that  he  might  compare 
Indo-Greek  wisdoms,  and  Deimachus  was  sent  to  his  court  as  a  sophist 
ambassador.  Bindusara  had  16  wives  of  whom  Moriya  Vamsaja  Dhammii 
Subhadrangi  was  the  chief  queen   and  .Asoka  was  born  of  her. 

Philadelphus  of  Egypt  (285-2 '7    BC.    sent    Dionysius    to    the   court 

of  Asoka      Asoka  was    the    most    enlightened    ruler    in    history.     By  his 

adoption  of  Budd'iism,  he  wanted  to  rule  his  vast  empire  by  the    universal 

dictates    of   morality,    peace,    reason    and  humanity.     "Officers  have  been 

appointed  on  my  thirteenth  coronation  year.     They    are   engaged  to  carry 

out  social    welfare    works   amonst  Yonas,  Ksmbojas,  Gandharas,  Ristikas, 

Petenikas    and   other    western    neighbours''. —Fifth   Rock    Edict,  Girnar. 

•'Whereever  there  were  no  herbs  beneticial  to  men  and  beneticial  to  cattle, 

everywhere     they    were    imported    and    planted.     Root  and    fruit   plants 

were  imported  and  planted  on  the  road  sides  ;    wells    were    du4  and   trees 

planted  to    the    welfare    of."— "All  men  are  my    progeny  ;     and    for    my 

progeny,  it  is  my  desire  that  they  are  provided  with  all  that    is   conductive 

to  their  welfare  and  happiness  (sava  munisa  me  paja  ;  atha  pajaye  icch  imi 

kimti  me  savena  hitasukhena  yujashu".- Jangada  2nd    Edict.     'Here   no 

living  being  shall  be  killed  and  sacrificed  in   the   interests   of   the   people 

(  praju    hitavyam  ).     And    no  samij*  l  fair    in    which    there   were   viand 

and  lipuor    shops  ;    and   for    amusements   there  were   acrobatic   displays, 

dancings,  singing  and  dramatic  performances  ;  and  even   seductions  of  men 


40  THE  LITBRABY  HISIOBy  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

"Vellavis  and  Pallavas.  Abhiras  coming  through  Sindhu  and 
Rajputana  became  the  military  chiefs  of  the  Sakas  of  Nasika, 
and     penetrated     upto     Ujjaini     where      conquering    with   the 

and  women  ;    sama j  =  assembly    of  men   and    women)    shall   be   held,  for 

king  devanampriya  priyadarsin  sees  much  evil  in  such   assemblies,    though 

some  of  them  may  be  good-     Formerly  for  the  froyal)   soup    (supa  =  Swed. 

supa  =  Ger.  soupen)  many    animals   were    killed.     But  when   this  d/iamma 

lipi  is  being  inscribed,  only    three   animals   are  killed  daily  for  the  soup  — 

two  peacoks  (mora  =  mayura)    and  one  deer   (mago  =  mriga)    and   the  deer 

not  always.     Even  these   three   animals   shall    not  be  killed  in  future  "  — 

Girnar   Rock    Edict  Fourth,    "And    this   has   been   won     repeatedly   by 

Devanampriya    both    (here)    and   amonst   neighbors  as  far  as    600  yojanas 

where  the  yona  king  named  Antiyoga  (  Antiochus  II  of  Syria  )    and  beyond 

this  Antiyoga.  four  kings  named  Tulamaya  iPtolemy  II   Philadelphus    385- 

247),     named    Aniikina    (Antigonus    Gonatas   of     Macedonia    276-239), 

named  Maka  (  Magas    of   Cyrena    300-250    B.  C.i,  named    Alikyashudala 

(Alexander  of  Corinth  252-244  B.  C  ),  and   likewise   towards  the  south,  of 

the  Cholas.  Pandyas  as  far   as   Tamiaparni,    Likewise    here    in   the  king's 

territory   among   the  Yonas,    Kambojas.  among  the  Nabhakas  and  Nabha- 

paniptis  among  the  Bhojas.  Pitinikyas,  among  the   Andhras    and    Paladas 

(=»  Paradas  =  Afridi)     everywhere    are     conforming     to     Devanampriya's 

instruction    in  morality,"  — 13  Kalsi   Kock  Edict.   Brahmi  Inscription     at 

Mah^'isthana  i    «  To  Galadan  of  the  Samvamgiyas  by  order.  The  Mahamatra 

from  the  highly   auspicious    Pundranagara   will    cause   to   be   carried  out. 

Paddy  has  been  granted  to  Samvamgiyas-     The    outbreak  (of  distress)    in 

the  town  by  this  superhuman    effort   will    be   tided   over      When    there  is 

is  abundant  harvest,  the  granary  and  the  treasury  may  be  repli^nished    with 

with  paddy  and  Gamdaka  coins".  *Bharata  (  actor  )  Natya  (  dance  play  : 

natakam  nanrutah,   Harivamsa  =  They  danced  a  play  )    Sastra=  An  Actors 

Dance  play  treatise  )  describes  how  to   dance  as  it  mentions    how  to    dress 

an  Abhira  girl  (23.60),    and    Abhiras   came    with    Sakas    not    before    first 

century    B     C.     Bimbisara     (298-270)     made  his  son    Asoka   (270-232), 

Governor  of  Avanti    and    he  used  to  stay  in  its  capital  Ujjain  ;  on  his  way 

to  Ujjain  he  used  to  halt  at  Vedisanagar  at  the  house  of  a  Sakya  merchant 

whose  ancestors    migrated    to    the    place    to    escape    the     oppression     of 

Virudabha,   son   of  Prasenjit  of  Kosoli.     During  his  halt  there  he  used  to 

cohabit   with    the  merchant's     daughter,  later     known   as    Vedisa    Devi 

Asandimitta    who    became   the     mother   of   Mahinda    and    Sanga-mitta  ; 

.•^angamitta   became    the    wife   of  Asoka's  sister's   son     Aggibrahma    and 

mother  of  Samanu.     Asoka  hastened  from  Ujjain    to    Pataliputta,    hearing 

that  his  father  was  on  death  bed.  It  is  said  that  he  got  the  throne  by  killing 

his  brothers  excepting  Tiss  a  Vitasoka  who  was  appointed   as    his  Upar^ja. 

for  this  he  wus  called  Canda  Asoka      But  his  younger  brother   Tissa   Vita 

Asoka    became  a  monk.     Then    his  nephew  and  son-in-law  Aggi  Bamana 

was   made   Uparaja   or   regent,  but   he   too    joined    the    Sanga,    Asoka's 

Agga    Mahesi    was   Asandhamitta    who    died  in    30th    year   of  his  reign ; 

and  4  yesrs  later  he   raised  Tissa  Rakkhita  to  the   position    of  the  queen  ; 

his  other  wives  were  Kuruvaki,    mother  of  Tivara  ;  Padmavati,  mother  of 

Kunala  ;    and  another,    mother   of  Jalauka  and  Caruvati.     Three  kumaras 

of  Asoka  are  mentioned  in   32  nd  year  of  his  reign  as  Viceroys  of  Tosola, 

Ujeni  and  Taksila, 


ABHlRAS  AND  UQBA9  ll 

aid  of  Khalka  xMongols,  Haihaya  Vetala  Talajangha  Vitihotras, 
established  the  Abhira  Ghosha  Prodyota  Dynasty.  Uprap, 
including  Licchavis  — Nicchavi?  of  Kuluka  BliHtta=  Niu -Chi 
Golden  Tatars,  occupied  from  \<^t&  to  Mithila.  Khnzars  as 
Gurjaraa  throuf^h  Putijaband  Rajputana  occupied  Gujrat,  Sat&nika 
of  Bharata  —  Phraates  descent  (Bharatanam  kule  jata  :  Phana's 
8apna  Vasavadatta)  befriended  Ugra  -  Henas  of  Mithila,  and 
married  their  daughter  Mrigavati  (MBh.  1,  59)  Mfigivati 
was  the  third  daughter  of  Chettaka,  the  Licchavi  archon  of 
Vaisali  and  Mithila.  Her  other  sisters  Prabhavati  was 
married  to  Udayana  -  Qdena  (of  Udes  tribe  of  the  Caucasus) 
•of  Vitabhaya  of  Badari.  to  the  North  of  Cutch  in  Sindh  ; 
Siva  to  Abhira  Gando  Pradyota  of  Avanii  :  Chellani  to 
Srenika  (called  because  he  introduced  the  representation  of 
Srenis  — the  trade  guilds  in  his  administrative  council)  Bimbisara 
of  Sishunag  Dynasty  of  Rajigriha  and  her  son  was  Ugraput 
(Anga,  Nikaya  1,  26)  Kunika  Ajaiasatru  ;  Dharini  Padmavati  to 
Dadhi  — Vahana  (Dadikes.  Herod,  '^.  91.  a  branch  of  the  Tajiks) 
of  Campa  =  Tsiampa,  of  Khmer- Kamboja  tribes  ;  Chettaka's 
sister  Videhadatta  Priya  Karini  Trisala  was  married  to  Xata  — 
putta  =  Jnatri-putra  Siddhartha  Nandi  -  Vardhana  (Nnndi,  a 
Hamitic  tribe  mixed  with  8udra  (Chudes)  Abhiras.  of  Kasyapa 
Gotra  of  Kundagraraa  near  Vaisali.  though  he  was  married 
to  a  Brahimin  wife  Devadatta  ;  Devadatta  giving  birth  to 
Mahavira  died  soon  after  and  INIahavira  was  reared  by  his 
step  mother  Trisala.  Satanika  of  Kausambhi  attacked  Campa. 
Dadhi-Vahana  fled,  but  his  wife  Padmavati  was  raped,  and 
she  committed  suicide  ;  her  daughter  Vasuaiati  Candana 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  invaders,  and  was  sold  as  a 
slave  to  a  banker  Dhanavaha  of  Kausambhi  ;  Dhanavaha's 
wife  Mula  became  jealous  of  Candnna  and  cut  off  her 
luxuriant  locks  of  hair.  In  this  condition  she  served  food 
to  Mahavira  and  became  a  Samana=Skt'  Sramana  — Shaman 
priests  of  the  Tungus  are  of  both  male  and  female  sex  ;  Niu  - 
Chi  belongs  to  the  Tungus  tribe.  Mahavira  was  married  to 
YasTda  of  Ku'idin  i!^.  Satrao  Kaundinai  Gotra  and  had  a 
daughter  Priyadarsaua  Anojja  who  was  married  to  .Taroali 
who  helped  him  in  nis  mission.  At  thirty  alter  the  death  of 
his  parents,  he  left  home  and  wondered  for  Pi  years  in  wild 
Radha  and  in  Vajji-Bhumi.  During  the  rainy  seasons  he 
remained  in  Vais-ali,  at  Rajagaha,  Campi.  Mithila  and 
Sravasti.  At  42  he  became  Kevalin  at  Ironbhika  on  the  river 
Rijupalike  near  Pareshnath  Hills.  At  72  he  died  in  the 
house  of  king  Hastipala's  scribe  at  Pavapuri  near  Rajagaha  at 
467  B  C,  when  Abhira  Ghosh  Palaka.  son  of  Pradyota,  was 
annointed  as  king  at  Avanti.  Satanika's  court  painter  was 
•dismissed.  He  went  to  the  Abhira  court  and  presented  Pradyota 
""Pajjota  the  life  size  portrait   of  Mrigavati,  painted  by   himself. 


42  THE  LITEBARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDI  A 

Infatuated  with  her  beauty,  Prodyota  demanded  from  Satanika. 
to  send  his  seductive  consort  Mrigavati  to  him,  or  he  would 
capture  her  by  force.  Satanika  fought  in  defence  ;  but  he 
died  suddenly  of  cholera.  Mrigavati  made  a  truce  with  Pajjota 
that  she  would  go  to  him  of  her  free  will.  In  the  meantime 
she  begged  help  of  her  sister-in-law  Udayana  of  Badari 
who  defeated  Pajjota  and  made  his  young  son  Udayana  by 
Prabhavati  the  king  of  Kausambhi.  Bat  young  Udayana  was 
captured  by  Pajjota  and  takeo  to  Avanti.  Mrigavati  became 
a  Jaina  nun.  Udayana  however  managed  to  escape  with  the- 
connivance  of  Pajjota's  beloved  daughter  Vasavadatta.  Pajjota 
became  reconciled.  Moreover  Udayana  also  occupied  the 
throne  of  Avanti  as  the  infuriated  mob  of  the  city  killed 
Pajjota's  son  Palaka  for  his  oppressive  rule.  Ajatasatru 
annexed  Vaisali  and  Campa  and  fought  over  parts  of  Kasi 
which  Prasenjit  gave  as  a  dowery  to  Kosala  Devi,  wife  of 
Bimbisar.  but  after  Bimbisar's  death  refused  to  cede  it  to 
the  growing  powerful  kingdom  of  Magadha  founded  by  Gedi 
(Chudi)  Machas.  Ajatasatru  however  secured  the  Kasi  terri- 
tory ;  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Darsaka— Na^a  Dasaka. 
Udayana  managed  to  marry  Darsaka's  sister  Padmavati  and 
fostering  a  palace  revolution  had  Darsaka  dethroned  in  477 
B.  C.  and  thus  founded  a  state  extending  from  the  Gulf  of 
Cutch  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal  in  the  heart  of  Aryavarta  and, 
removed  his  capital  to  Kusumpura  (Kusuma  — Kurumbas,  iden- 
tified with  Pallavas,  later  known  as  Patali  (Vetala) -Pufcra, 
founded  by  Ajatasatru,  as  a  place  of  strategic  importance  at  that 
time.  Udayana  brought  under  submission  by  a  military  expedi- 
tion Ugra  Ayudha  Brahmadattas  who  were  in  possession  of 
parts  of  Kasi  and  who  instigated  a  rebellion  against  him.  But 
Udayana's  domination  was  swept  away  by  Sudras«=Chude8, 
possibly  mixed  with  Nandis,  by  Ugra  8ena  Nandi  -  Vardhana 
Mahapadma  (of  great  wealth)  Nandas  who  uprooting  the 
feudatory  chiefs  became  the  centralized  power  -  ekarat  i  Matsya 
P.  272.  L8).  But  within  a  short  time,  Achaemenian  (Haka  — 
Saka  Manisiya  —  Manusha)  empire  was  overran,  by  Alexander's 
army.  Maurya  (Crk.  Mauros  =  Lat.  Maurus  — Moors— Moriyas  of 
Pippalavana  ;  Moriyar  in  S.  India  in  1st  century  A.  D.  Moriya 
of  Ceylon)  Guptas  (Ar.  Qoft- Copt  who  called  them  Guptios, 
and  from  whom  ai -Guptios  =  an  Egyptian  — Egypt  has  been 
named)  in  order  to  liberate  their  province  (N.  W.  India), 
brought  and  settled  there  by  Darius  for  military  purposes, 
from  occupying  army,  allied  themselves  with  the  rebellious 
Sakas,  Kambojas.  Parsikas,  Kiratas,  Purus,  and  even  joined  by 
some  discontended  Yavanas  (Mudra  Raksasa  -2,  12),  forced  out 
the  Alexander's  army  by  the  Indus,  and  fell  upon  the  shaken 
Stidra  Nanda  Empire  and  wiped  it  out ;  and  enslaved  the 
Sudras.     Maski   Rock  Inscription   definitely    connects     Maurya 


MAUBYA  GUPTAS  AND  SUNOA8  48 

Asoka   with    Devanampiyara    as    their   dynastic    designation,  ati 
his  successor  and  grandson  Dasaratha  had  the  same  title. 

Asoka  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson  Dashalatha  (Dasaratha) 
Devanampiya  I  in  the  Nagarjuna  Hill  cave  inscription)  as  his 
son  Kunala  was  blinded  by  the  intrigues  of  Tisya  -  Kakhita,  one 
of  his  wives.  Tishya- Rakshita  made  amorous  approaches 
to  Kunala  (Tib.  Ku-na  la,  a  Himalayan  pheasant  with  beautiful 
eyes),  incited  by  his  soft  lustrous  eyes.  Bat  Kunala  repulsed 
her  advances.  Kunala  went  as  a  viceroy  of  Takshiisih  ; 
once  Asoka  drafted  a  letter  to  his  military  governor,  advising 
him  to  continue  music  lessons  for  Kunala  -  idam  adhiyatam 
Kumaram  ;  Tishya  Rashita  chanced  to  see  and  read  the 
epistle  ;  revenge  flared  up  in  her  mind  for  her  unrequitied 
love  for  Kunala,  and  she  availed  of  the  opportunity  to  change 
the  contents  of  the  letter  by  making  a  point  of  collinum 
with  the  hairpin,  and  the  letter  read  :  idam  andhiatam 
Kuiuaram  ;  the  governor  finding  the  command  of  the  emperor 
to  blind  the  prince  carried  it  out  reluctantly,  and  for  this 
folly  he  was  banished  to  Khotan,  where  with  the  other  followers 
of  Kunala.  Kunala  was  made  the  king,  founding  Vijita  - 
Vijaya  Dynasty.  Kunala's  step-brother  Jaluka  seems  to  be  a 
Hinduized  name  of  Seleucos,  as  Daiuodara  of  Demetrius  ;  (it 
is  known  that  Kashmir  came  under  the  occupation  of  both 
Seleucos  and  Demetrius  ;  only  their  time  and  place  have  not 
been  properly  placed  by  Kahlana).  Jaluka  was  the  Viceroy  of 
Kashmir.  Dasaratha,  son  of  Kunala,  favoured  Ajivakas.  But 
his  brother  Sampriti  divided  the  rest  of  the  kingdom. 
Sampriti  became  an  ardent  Jaina  and  made  Ujjaini  his 
capital.  This  antagonized  the  orthodox  vedic  worshippers. 
Pushya  — Mitra  (Pusa-  Mitta  in  Jaina  Gathas)  Sunga  (Pu-8hi, 
allies  of  Scythianized  Chinese  Chung  — Bhang  =  Sung  ;  Sungas 
were  Bharadvajas.  Panini  4,  1,  11 V)  Commander  (Senapati  — 
Senani)  of  the  Maurya  Guptas,  weakened  by  the  pacific 
policy  of  Asoka  and  his  successors,  and  aggressions  of  Cheti^ 
—  Parthian  Chudi)  Kharvela,  overthrew  the  Maurya-Guptas 
and  became  the  dominant  power,  and  oppressed  the  Buddhist 
officers  of  the  former  reign.  There  is  a  Sunga  inscription  of 
1st  century  A.  D.  in  Brahuii  character,  '  Kosola  sovereign 
commander  Pushya-Mitra  who  performed  two  Asva-Medha 
ceremonies,  his  sixth  descendent  Dhana  Dharmaraja.  son  of 
Kausiki    (Hun    Kosik    Mother),    a  shrine    is     erected    m  honour 


In  Nasik  cave  Inscription  :  Indragni  Datta  son  of  Dhammadeva,  Yavana, 
a  northerner  from  Daltametn  (Datamiti  Yakasa  Yonakasya  Dhammadeva- 
putesa  Indragni  Datasa  Dhanimatmana  iman). 

On  one  of  the  pillars  of  Asoka's  railing  at  Mahabodhi  :  Gift  of 
Kurangi.  daughter  of  Jivii,  begetrice  of  children  of  Indra  Agni  Mitra  of- 
Saka  descent  ^ka  putasa  Indagi  Mitasa  pajavatiye  Jiva  putaye  Kurangiye- 
danam.'. 


44  THB  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

of  his  father  Phalgudeva  (Kosal  -  adhipena  dvir-asvamedha 
—  yajinah  Senapateh  Pushyamitrasya  shashthena  Kausiki - 
putrem,  dhana  Dharmarajna  pituh  Phalguderasya  Ketanam). 
With  the  downfall  of  the  Maurya  Guptas,  N.  India  was 
menaced  by  Bactiian  lonians.  Euthedemite  Ionian  Demetrius 
was  an  ambitious  military  genius.  He  challanged  the  domi- 
nation of  Seleucos  (in  cuneiform  inscription  Suliki  ;  Culikas 
-"  Sulikas  on  the  flowing  waters  of  Gakshu-Oxus,  Matsya  P. 
120.  45-46  ;-  Sulki  of  Oressa).  He  with  his  brother  Apollodotus 
and  his  general  Menander  (Milinda  in  Milindapanha) 
crossed  the  Hindukush  and  the  Indus  in  18^:5  B.  G  occupied 
Taxasila  and  made  Pushkala  vati  ( Peukela  full  of  Pushkala 
Ugras)  his  capital.  Demetrius  (Dattamitra  Yavana-pati  of  Sauvira, 
MBh  I,  139,  '21-JH  ;  Dhamma  -  Mitta  of  the  Buddhists;  Yavana- 
raj  Dirai  of  Kharveja  ;  Deraetira  in  Kharosti  by  him  ;  Damodaca 
of  Kashmere  chronicles^  was  welcomed  by  Buddhists  against 
the  aggressions  of  the  Sungas  and  Kharvela.  Demetrius 
conquered  Sind  and  at  Pritala  built  tort- Dzttamitri.  and 
conquering  Sarastos  (Saurststra)  made  Barygazy  iBhrigu- 
Kaccha  -  Broach)  his  capital.  His  general  Menander  advan- 
cing through  Mathura  and  Saketa  (Baka  stronghold  = 
Ayodhya^  besieged  Kusumadvaja  But  Menander  abandoned  it 
as  Demetrius  was  compelled  to  leave  N.  India  for  Bactria 
Tvhich  was  attacked  by  Macedonian  Eucratides,  Menander 
assumed  the  role  of  a  king  by  marrying  Agatbsha,  daughter  of 
Demetrius  ;  and  though  deprived  of  any  outside  help  he  ruled  his 
kingdom  for  twenty  five  years,  only  with  a  small  Ionian  force, 
from  Gandhara  to  Mathura,  making  Sakala  (Sialkot)  his  capital. 
After  campaign  against  Maurya  partisans  in  Vidharva,  as  Pushya 
-Mitra  was  celebrating  his  Asvatnedha,  a  Saka-Huna  custom, 
his  sacrificial  horse  was  captured  by  Menander's  army  in 
Aravallis,  but  was  rescued  by  his  grandson  Vasu  -  Mitra  as 
mentioned  in  Malavika  Agni  Mitram. 

Hathigumpha  Kharvela  inscription  of  about  170  B.  C. 
165  of  the  Maurya  Era  at  Udaya  Giri,  3  miles  off  from 
Bhuvanesvara  ;  "'Salutation  to  the  Arhats.  salutation  to  the 
Siddhas.  By  illustruous  Kharvela  (Siri  Kharvelena  Airena 
Maharajena),    the  Aira,  the  great  king,   the    increaser     of   Cheti 

"2.  For  fifteen  years  with  ardor,  he  took  physical  exercises  and 
learnt  inscribing,  painting,  calculations,  customs,  laws  and  all  kinds 
of  essential  knowledge  (lekha-rupa  ganana  +  vavatara — vidhir  visaradena 
sava  vijavadatena).  For  nine  years  he  performed  the  office  of  heir- 
apparent  (nava  vasani  yovaraja  pasasitam).  On  his  24th  year  he  was 
coronated'.  In  the  first  year  of  his  coronation  he  caused  the  repairs  of 
the  gates  and  walls  of  buildings  damaged  by  storms  (vata-vihita  gopura 
pakara  nivesamam),  erection  of  the  embankment  of  lake  Khibira  ; 
excavation  of  tanks  and  cisterns  and  the  restoration  of  all  gardens. 
4.     In   the   second    year  disregarding  Sata-kamni  (Sata-karni- offshoot  of 


EHABVKLA  46 

royal  dyuasty  (Cheti  —  Cedi- Parth.  Cliudi  -  raja  vasa-vadha- 
noaa  ,  the  descendant  of  Mahii  Megha,  with  excellent  qualities, 
auapicions  marks  and  features,  possessed  of  virtuea  wbich 
have  spread  over  the  four  quaters,  overlord  of  Kalingu. 

Sunga  Mitras  (185  —  78  B.  C.)  were  weakened  by  the 
incurjious  of  Mithridates  in  I  8j  H.  J.  who  occupied  the  Indus 
basin  ;  White  Hun  Ei)htlialite  Abtelite  (Vetalai  Gardabhilas 
(Guda  =  Gadaha  in  the   gold  coins -Kidara,  allied    to     Kushans  : 

Satas  -  Soyois,    the  husband    of    Nayanikii   of   Nanaghat    incription    in 

Poona  Dt),    he   despatched  an    army   strong   in    cavalry,    elephants,    men 

and   chariots    (dutiye     ch  i   vase     achitayitTi     sata     kammnim    pachhima 

disam  haya-gaja-naia  radha  vahulani).     \Vhen    that   army  reached  Kanah- 

bemna    uvnshnaveni  =  Krishna)    he  throws  the  Musika-nagara   (the    Musi 

joins  the  Krishna  about    Nalgonda  =  Mus;  ku  -  Musgu;  into  consternation. 

5.     Versed    in    Gandharva    he    entertains  it  by  his  dapa    iSkt.    drava  =  an 

antic  tiance),  dancings,  songs,  music   and  social    festivities  and    merriments 

Igamdhava     vcda-budho    dapa     nata   gita   vfideta   samdahmsanuhi   usava 

samlja'.      Deprived      of     their      umbrellas,       scepturcs     (bhinjara "  Skt. 

bhringrira\  all    the    Rathikas   and  Bhojakas    bow   down    to    his    feet.     In 

the  5th    year  he   connects    his   capital    with  the  Tamaaulia   canal,    dug  by 

Nanda    Raja    300  years   ago.     Celebrating     his    R^jasuya     he   remits    all 

taxrs  and  cess  levies  lyamito   sava    kara-vanam)    and    gave    many    gifts  of 

hundred  and    thousands  of  Janapadas.      In    the   seventh     year,    his    wife 

Vagiraghara  got  the   dignity    of    motherhood.     In   8th    year   with    a  large 

army    he    sacked   Goradha-glri    iBarbar    Hill   has     been    found    inscribed 

as  Garatha  giri),    pressed    on    Rajagriha=- Rajgir).     Having    heard   of  tnis 

thundering  act   of   bravery,    Yavana-raj     Dmi    (Demetrias  in  his  Kharosti 

coin  called  himself  Dime  ;  some  read  as  i  (ra)  Mavo  =  Heramaya  =  Eramam 

20-32    ADj     retreated   to    Maihura.    having    extricated    his   demoralized 

army    and    transports    (Elin    cha     Kammapadana   sanadena   sarnbta-sena- 

Vcihane    Vipamuchitu   madhuram     apoyAto     Yavanaraj     Dmi].     In    lOth 

year  he  sends  an  expedition  against    Pithumda   'prithu-ana  =  big  egg  like- 

Pitundra,    a    big   port   mentioned    by   Ptolemy i,    whence    lived   the    Ava 

(  =  Andhrai  raja.      He  furrowes  it  with  ass  driven   plows,    and    breaks   the 

confideracy  of   Tamira    (Tamils    countries  of    113  years  which  has  been  a 

source  of  danger  to   his  kingdom  (Ava  raga  nivesitam    Pithumdam  gadabha 

namgalena  k?isayati).     12,     Causing  panic  amonst  the   people  of  Magadha 

he  drives  elephants  into  Sugamgiya    iSuging,  the  palace  of   Candra  Gupta 

Maurya,  Mudra  Raksasa,  Act  3   makes  the  king  of  Magadha  Bahasati  Mita 

(Brihaspati    Mitra    whose   wife  Naga    Devi   donated    a  pillar  of  stone  rail 

at  Buddho  Gaya)  offer  jewels  at  his  feet.     He  sets  up  the   image  of  Jina  of 

Kalinga    which    had    been    taken   away    by   Padma    Kaja    iMaha    Padma 

Nanda),  brings  home  the   riches  of   Anga    and    Magadha   along    with    the 

family  jewels 

Taxila  plate  of  Patika  in  Kharosti,  In  the  78th  year  of  the  great 
king,  great  Moga,  on  the  fifth  day  of  the  mouth  Panema  of  Chhahera, 
Chukhsa  satrap  Liaka  Kusuluka  name  -  his  son  Patika.  To  the  north  of 
the  towns  of  Takhasila  the  eastern  region  bears  the  name  of  Khema.  In 
this  place  Patika  establishes,  not  established  before,  the  relic  of  divine' 
Sakyamuni  (  bhagavata  Sakamunisa  sariram  Bamaharaman)  and    monastery- 


46  THB  LITERARY  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Gadaphara  of  the  Bactrian  coins  ;  Mabaragusa  rajaterajasa 
Mahatasa  Gudubarasa  Gudana  ;  there  is  also  an  Abyssinian 
tribe  Gudabirsi)  occupied  Ujjaini  coming  through  Kandahar 
•and  Sind.  Gardhabhils  ruled  Uijaini  for  17  years.  The  Vetala 
Gardhabhil  king,  it  is  said,  ravished  the  pretty  Jaina  nun 
Sarasvati,  sister  of  Jaina  Kalakacarya,  Kalaka  Acarya  went 
to  the  West  of  Sind  and  induced  Sahi  Sodas  to  march  along 
Sind  and  Guzsrat ;  they  occupied  Mathura  and  Ujjaini ;  Sodas 
with  bis  90  chiefs  ruled  Ujjaini  for  4  years  (61  -  67  B.  C), 
when  a  Gardhabhil  prince  regained  Ujjami  with  his  Vetala 
force,  drove  Sodas  and  his  chiefs  to  Mathura  region,  declared 
independence  of  the  decadent  Kanva  suzerainty,  assumed  the 
title  of  Vikramaditya  in  the  Vikrama  Malava  Era  57  B.  C. 
Kathakacarya  and  his  sister  went  to  Sata  —  Vabanas  of 
Prathistaoapura.  About  12  )  B.C.  Moga  -  Maues  =  Mavaka  of  the 
Lion  Capital  of  Mathura,  Maukharies  of  a  later  dynasty, 
occupied  Taxila.  Scythians  coming  through  Sind  and  Kathiwar 
(Sakadvipa),  Sodas  occupied  Mathura  and  overthraw  the 
G-ardabhils    who  had  asses  as   emblems    in   their   coins. 

Other  northern  Satraps  are  mentioned  in  the  Lion  Capital 
of  Mathura  -Satrap  Sudasa,  son  of  great  Satrap  Rajula  (Maha- 
^hhatravasa  Rajulasya  Putra  Sudase  Chatrave).  Kharaost, 
heir  apparent  ;  Khalmasa  is  the  prince  ;  Maja,  the  youngest 
(Kharaosta  Yuvaraya  Khalmasa  Kumara  Maja  kanitho- 
Kanista,  of  the  Satrapl  Khardaa,  R-of  Racchila  Eaundina 
(Rachhilasa      Kaundinasa).       The       Western      Satraps     were 


for  the  worship  of  all  Buddhas  to  the  benefit  of  his  mother  and  father  and 
for  the  increase  of  the  length  of  life  and  power  (ayu-vala  vardhio^  of  the 
satrap  who  is  associated  with  his  sons  and  wives,  honouring  at  the  same 
time  all  his  brothers  and  blood  relations.  The  architect  of  this  monastery 
(samgharame  nava  kamika)  of  maha-dam  pati  Patiki  is  Rohini  Mitra 
"By  Nada  Dioke,  the  chief  queen  (agramahesi)  of  great  satrap  Kajula, 
daughter  (dhite)  of  Ayasi  Komu5a  (Kamua  =  Kamboja),  mother  of  the 
heir  aparents  Kharasta  Nandasi  Akasa  and  Sodasa,  together  with  her 
brother  Abuhola,  her  paternal  grandmother  (pitramahij  Pipasi,  her  brother 
Hayura,  her  daughter  Hava.  have  made  this  stupa,  monastery  and  lion 
capital  of  Mathura)  for  the  acceptance  of  the  universal  Sangha  of 
Sarvastivadins." 

This  Garura  standard  of  god  of  gods— Vasudeva— was  made  by  the 
order  of  Bhagavata  Heliodoros.  the  son  of  Dion  of  Taxila,  an  Ionian 
ambassador  from  king  Antialkidas  to  king  Bhagabhadra  (Sunga  l08  B  C), 
son  of  the  princess  of  Kasi,  protector  who  is  prospering  in  40th.  year  of 
his  reign.  There  are  the  steps  to  immortality  which  follow  to  heaven — 
self-control,  self-denial  and  watchfulness.  Deva  devasa  Va  (sudel  vasa 
Garura  dvaje  ayam  karite.  Heleodorena  Bhagavatena  Diyosa 
putrena  TakshsUakena  yona  dutena  agatena  maharajasa  Antalikitasa 
upa  (m)  ta  sakasa  (m)  rano  Kasiputasa  Bhagabhadrasa  tratrtarsa  vasena 
chatudesena  ragena  vadhamanasa,  Trini  amutapadani  (pta)  anuthitani 
nayanti  svaga  (m)  demochago  apramada. 


KSHAHABATATAS  47 

Kshaharatas  (Khshathrita  — Phraortes  of  Cimmerian  origin 
-who  ruled  Media,  67  5-653  B.  C.  of  whom  Bhumaka 
and  Nahapana  are  well  known  in  let  century  B.  C.  with 
Nasik  as  ttieir  capital,  and  Abhira  Isvara  Dattas  as  their  army 
chiefs.  The  Satraps  of  Ujjaini  in  2nd  A.  T).  were  Chastana, 
Rudra  Daman  and  Rudra  Simha.  "Success  1  on  the  fifth  day 
of    the    bright     fortnight    of     VaisAkha.    during  the  auspicious 

Bhit    Inscription  in    I.ucknow    Museum    of    1st.   century    B.C.     "The 
phallus  of  the   sons   of   Khajahuti    was  dedicated  by  N'tga  siri.  the  son  of 
Vasethi  for  the  pleasure  of   the  Deity    (Khajahati  putanfim  1  (im>  go  pati- 
thapito    Vasethi-putena  Nigasirina  piyoyca  (m   d  (e)  vatii  )    with  top  most 
bust   and   four  heads  below,    The  phallus  is  marked  by  deeply  drawn  lines, 
the  Siva  image  of  Paucamukha    tpye,    Isana,  Tatpurusha,    Aghora.    V;ima 
deva    and     SadynjatA.     Gudimallan    Siva   of   1st.    century     A.  D.    is   of 
Mongoloid   feature,  some  what  snub  nose,  high  cheek  bones,    oblique  eyes 
(virupaksha)  on  a  five  feet   circumcized  phallus   s-t    on    a    pindika     vulva, 
carved  out  of  hard    igneous  stone   of  dark    brown   colour      The   phallus 
is  realisticidly  modelled  and  the  front  of  the    phallus  bears   out   on    it    the 
figure  of  Siva    in    high    relief,    standing   on    the    shoulders   of  crouching 
figure  of  Apasmara  Purusha.     There  is    a  close    resemblat.ee   of  th  s  Siva 
to  that  of  a  Yaksha  in  a  Sanci  siupa  of  2nd.  century  B.  C      Buddha  image 
developed    after    the    Yaksha.    An    inscribed   copper    relic    casket    from 
Kurran  of  four  lines  in    Kharosthi     script    as    in    Kanishka    Casket    from 
Shahjiki  dheri".    Year  21,   month   of   Avadunaka    iGk    Hndunaos    in  the 
territory    of  Udayana  of   king  Uttarasena   type   by   the   Kushans      Before 
Buddha   was   represented   only  by   symbols,  as  wheel  of  Law.   Asoka  tree 
buddha  prints  in  the   sacred    shrine  of  Sravastivadins    the  bodily  relics  of 
blessed  Saka  muni  (  masa  avadnnakasa  di  20  ise  chunami  siulra  varmayasa 
rabbhumi  rana  uchasana  Sarvasti-vadanami  thubammi    Bhagavatasa    Saka- 
munisa  ).     A  standing  nude  Jina  image  with    wavy   hair  on    the  head  and 
hanging  penis  on  the  loins,    dedicated  by  Kumara  Mit^i.  dated  in    the  year 
15  of  Kanisks  Era.     "In  the  year  15  in  3rd.  month  of  summer  on  first  day 
on  this  occasion  4  fold  image  of   Lord  '  was   set  up  ),    the   gift  of  Kumfira 
Mita,  daughter  of...  la.    chief  wife  of  guildmaster  Veni     mother  of  Bhatta- 
sena.  at  the  request  of  \enerahle  Vasula  (  oue    inscription    mentions  Ayya 
Vasula  in  86  of  Kaniska  era  ,  the  female  pupil    of   Sangamika.    one  of  the 
female   pupils    of  Jayabhuti    of     (Me)    kka    Kula   (asy»    purvv^ya    (Me) 
hikalo  Kulaio  ayya  Jaybhutisya.    lasya  dhi  (tu)  ivu)    dhu    veni  srestis  (yai 
dharmapatiye  Bhattisenasya  matu  Kum^romitayo  drinam    bhagovato  'prati) 
ma  savvato  bhadrika.     Mathura  Brahmi    inscription.     "In    the    year  28  on 
the  first   day    ot   Gorpiaios    (  a  Macedonian    month)     the   eastern    hall  of 
merit  was   given  a  perpetual    endowment    by  Kanasarukaman.    scion,    the 
iord   of   Kharasalera.    the    lord   of   Vakana.     And    what  merit  is  here  in. 
may  that  to  Devaputra  Shahi  Huvishka   and  to  those  to    whom    Devaputra 
is  dear."     In  the  51st.  year  of  Maharaja  Devaputra  Huvishka    111-138). 
the  image  of  Buddhavarma  by  Upadhyaya  Sanghadasa  for  relief  of  misery 
and  welfare  and  happiness  of  all  beings  (sarva  dkhopasama  sarva  satva-hita 
«ukhariha).   Mathura  Inscription  :     "Success"  in  the  year  80  in  the   winter 
of  Maharaja   Vasudeva   (152-176)    by  the   daughter  of  Sanghantdisa  and 
■wife  of  Bala  ^sdhi  Maharajasya  Vsudevsy  sa  80  hamava   dhita  Saghanadesa 
vadhuye  Balasya). 


48  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

period  of  the  constellation  Ro  hi)ni  in  the  year  103  of  the- 
king  Kshatrapa  lord  (Svami)  Rudra  Si(n)ha,  the  son  of  the- 
king  Maha  — Kshatrapa  lord  Rudra  Daman,  son's  son  of  the 
Kshatrapa  Jaya  Daman,  and  grandson  of  Maha  -  Kshatrapa 
Chastano.  the  well  (Vapii  is  dug  and  embanked  by  the 
commander  Radrabhuto,  the  son  of  the  Senapati  Bapaka,  the 
Abhira,  at  the  village  of  Rasopadra,  foi-  the  welfare  and 
comforts  of  all  living  beings  (Sarva  satvanam  hita  sukhar-' 
thamiti).  Antialkidas  who  conquered  Kathiwar  dedicated  a 
column  with  the  figure  of  Garuda  at  the  top  in  honor  of 
Vishnu  at  Besnagar  through  his  ambassador  Heliodorus.. 
Votive  inscriptions  in  the  (Jhaitya  cave  at  Karle,  Fifth  Pillar, 
Right  Row:  (This)  R.  pillar  (is*  the  gift  of  Yavana  associa- 
tion of  clans  from  Umehana  kata  (umehana  kata  yavanase 
Vitasagatanam  danam  thabhoi,  I3th  Pillar:  Pillar  (isi  the 
gift  of  Yavana  Dhamadhaya  from  Dhaouka  kata  'dhenuka 
Kaia  Yavanasa  dhamadha  yanam  thabho  danam.  I5th  Pillar, 
Pillar  is  the  gift  of  Chula  Yakkha  Yavana  i^Dhenukata  Ohula 
Yakhan  Yavanasa  Thabho  (stambha)  dana). 

Yuehchih  Kouei  -  Shouang  (Yaksha  Kushan  of  Kusa  or 
Kusi  race  as  used  in  Kaniska's  gold  coins  ;  Kusa=  Kassites 
who  also  called  themselves  Kussu,  plu.  Kassip  (Pur.  Kasyapa) 
-Caspi.  a  Scythic  tribe  from  whom  Caspian  sea  named  =  Chin. 
Ku  — tsong)  were  driven  from  8.  W.  Kansu  of  China  by  the 
incursions  of  fliung— nu  (Huns  =  Hunas)  about  1 75  B.  G. 
under   the  leadership  of    Hun     Chief     Mao-Tun      (209—174). 


Though  Kaniska  was  eclectic  in  his  religious  beliefs,  having 
Hellenic,  Zoroastrian,  Mithraic  and  .Anahita  symbols  in  his  coins, 
he  in  his  latter  life  became  a  good  Buddhist  and  made  Buddhism, 
the  vehicle  of  universal  humanity  and  love  fey  Mahayana  system  of 
Sanskrit  literature.  Asvaghosa  wrote  Buddha  Carita,  Sundarananda 
Kavya,  Sutralankira,  Vajra-suci  ;  Nagarjuna  of  Prajnaparamita.  Caraka 
was  his  court  physician  and  attended  to  the  delivery  of  his  wife.  Kaniska's 
seated  statue  at  Mathura  M  has  a  padded  trouser  and  an  overcoat  like  that 
of  the  Chinese.  Kalhana  says  that  Huska,  Juska  and  Kaniska  were 
Turuksa  =  Turks,  a  mixed  people,  based  on  Aschin  of  Hung-nu.  Kaniska 
used  Greek  language  and  script  alone  in  his  coins,  but  in  grammar 
incorrectly.  Huviska  and  Vasudeva  however  uses  Greek  correctly. 
Basileus  Basileon  Kanheskkoy  =  Kaniska,  king  of  kings  =  Turkish 
Shaonano  Shao  Kaneski  Kuthano.  At  Harvan  =  Arhat-vana,  1^  miles 
above  Shalimar,  Kaniska  held  a  universal  Buddhist  Council  The  floor 
tiles  of  burnt  bricks  show  the  mould  impression  reliefs  of  Parthian 
pattern  of  two  faces-  husband  and  wife  of  Kushan  type  with  slanting  eyes 
and  prominent  cheek-bones  ;  a  dancing  girl  wearing  pajamas.  With 
Kh  numerals  ;  a  young  woman  with  fine  oval  face,  prominent  nose, 
globular  breasts,  almond  eyes,  luxuriant  hair  raised  upwards  and  bound 
by  a  ribbon,  wearing  a  pair  of  large  ring  earrings,  long  sleeved  blouse,  a: 
skirt  with  laces  in  frontal  centre,  shoes  in  her  feet,  holding  a  water  jar 
with  two  flowers  whose   stems  are   inserted   inside  on  the  palm  of  her  right 


DEVAPUTRA  KUSHANS  49 

His  successor  Lao  -  Shang  (174-160)  slew  the  Yuechi  chief 
and  made  a  drinking  goblet  of  his  skull  from  upper  Hi  to 
Amu  Daria  region,  Yuechis  were  driven  by  Wu- 8un.s  (Tatar 
name  for  "Tall  ones",  Chin,  green-eyed  devils)  in  160  B.  C. 
Kushans  destroying  the  Indo  -  Parthian  kingdom  occupied  the 
Oxus  basin,  fell  upon  Sai  — Saka  of  Iran,  Kipin  (Gandharai, 
Kubha  (Kabul).  Satraps  of  Mathura  and  W.  India  acknowledged 
the  suzerainty  of  Wima  (Vimai  Kadphises  a5-62.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Jihonika  70- 78,  Kaniska  78-101  who  reconquered 
Kashgar,  Yarkand  and  Khotan  which  Kushans  ceded  to  the 
Huns  and  the  Chinese.     Kaniska  conquered  Kashmir.     He  made 

hand  with  bent  arms.  Ara  Kh  inscription  of  161  A.  D  :  "Maharajasa 
rajatiraja  Devaputra  Kaisara  fjulian  family  adopted  the  title  of  Caesar  ; 
thence  Ger.  K,aiser»  Russ  Tsar.  But  the  etymology  of  Roman  Caesar  is 
uncertain  ;  is  it  after  the  Khazais  who  were  the  dominant  people  at  that 
time)  Vajeshka-putra  Kaniska  (11)" 

In  the  4th  year  ,  25th  Jaistha,  a  well  dug  by  Dushafota,  the  son  of 
Poshaphri,  in  honor  of  his  mother  and  father  in  order  to  confer  benefit 
on  himself  together  with  his  wife  and  son,  for  the  welfare  of  all  beings 
in  their  (various)  births.  And  for  this  I  throw  one  lakh  as  a  religious 
endowment.  A  Naga  figure  in  the  Mathura  Museum-  A  standin*^  N^lga 
has  a  triangular  three  fold  necklace.  There  is  a  bracelet  on  the  right 
wrist.  The  left  hand  holds  a  small  vessel,  and  a  lotus  bud  in  the  right 
hand.  There  are  two  Nagis  on  his  both  sides,  on  the  right  wearing  a 
skirt  and  on  the  left  an  ornamental  girdle.  There  is  an  inscription  : 
"In  the  year  8  of  the  great  king,  king  of  kings,  Kanikkha,  in  the  fourth 
summer  on  5th  day,  a  tank  and  a  garden  have  been  made  for  the  welfare 
of  all."  On  the  Kaniska  casket  in  which  Kaniska  is  crowned  with  a  wreath, 
there  is  an  inscription  :  Dasa  Agisala  Navakarmi  Kanaskasa  Vihare 
Mahasenasa  Sangarame  =  The  slave  Agisala,  the  superintendent  of  work  at 
Kaniska's  Vihara  of  Mahasena.  The  names  Agesilas  and  Ageisilas  have 
been  found  in  a  Boetian  inscription  from  N.  Greece.  Kushans  have  intro- 
duced the  Indo-Gandharian  art  through  the  Greek  influence.  Their  vast 
compact  empire,  extending  from  the  heart  of  India  to  through  Central 
Asia,  contracting  Roman  and  Chinese  empires,  developed  a  brisk  inter- 
national traffic,  brought  out  an  intellectual  ferment,  wider  outlook  of  life 
and  refinements  of  arts  and  sciences.  At  Begram  in  Kapisi,  a  damaged 
sculpture  in  basrelief  shows  Bimbisar  and  Buddha.  Buddha  with  a  mous- 
tache in  Greek  style  is  seated  ;  under  the  sculpture  there  is  an  inscription 
in  Kharosti,  the  right  portion  is  abraided.  *'Gift  of  Atari  for  the  welfare 
and  respect  of  her  father  (Atariye  danammuhe  imena  kusalamulena  pituno 
pujae).  In  Kucha  Karachar  -  Agnidesa  1st.  and  2nd.  century  as  in  Gandh5r, 
there  are  Hellenized  frescoes  of  Mahayana  Buddhism  and  Manaeshism.  At 
Hund,  ancient  Udabhanda  capital  of  Shahi  kings  on  the  Indus,  an  ins- 
cription in  Sarada  character,  has  been  found.  The  place  has  also  yielded 
the  statues  of  Kushan  Kaniska.  a  torso  of  Saka  satrap  Chastano.  A 
statue  shrine  of  Kamesvari  ;  architects  (nava  Karma  pati  Upendra  putra 
Jayanta  Raj  and  Surya  Dvija  of  Avanti  :  priest— Viraditya  putra  Pillaka  ; 
manager  or  inscriber  (  Kayastha)  Vihendra  putra  Bhogaka  Samvata 
168.     Ram  Nagar  =  Ahicchatra  Saka   Inscription  in  Brahmi  script :  "Lord 

4 


60  THE  LITERARY  HISTORy  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Pushkalavati  (Peshwar)  his  capital,  which  he  enriched  with 
many  fine  buildings.  He  attacked  Pataliputra  and  took  with 
him  the  great  Buddhist  scholar  Asvagosha.  He  also  built 
many  fine  buildings  at  Mathura  and  at  Kaniskapura  m 
Kashmir.  Kaniska's  eldest  son  was  Vasiska  202 -iOd.  Vasiska 
was  succeeded  by  Kaniska's  2nd  son  Huviska  lll-lb8. 
Huviska  was  succeeded  by  Kaniska  11(139-15  2),  and  he  by 
Juska  Vasadeva  152- 17d  who  not  only  adopted  Hindu 
name  but  had  Siva  and  Nandi  as  emblems  in  his 
Mathura  coins.  Vasudeva— J  uska  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Abhimanyu  according  to  Kashmir  Chronicles.  Kushans  adopted 
the  title  of  Devaputra  like  Angirsas  as  Devaputra,  RV.  X,  b2.  4, 
Chin.  Ten  -  Tzu-  son  of  heaven. 

Andhaka  (Andkhui)  and  Satvata  (also  known  as  Su.ta  = 
Soyot)  are  ancient  Yadava  clans.  Amalgamated  they 
became  known  as  Sata-Vahana  Andhras.  Pratistanapura 
( Paitan)  was  their  capital,  and  they  dominated  the  entire 
GodavHiri  (named  after  Gadhavas)  valley  up  to  delta.  Originally 
they  have  spoken  an  Ural-Altaic  agglutinative  speech,  observed 
in  Sumer  and  in  Telugu.  In  Sumer  they  migrated  from  Ural 
Altaic  region  with  bronze.  There  Sumerians  were  later  domi- 
nated and  assimulated  by  Semites  (Shem  =  Soma)  of  Sargon. 
Whether  they  were  Soyots,  there  is  hardly  any  proof. 
But  possibility  is  there  as  Sutu  is  mentioned  as  conqueror 
of  Sumer  in  Gilgamesh  Epic.  Later  any  how  they  spoke  a 
kind    of    Pisaci    like      Pashai,    Shina    and    Yeshkun,    and   in 


By  the  son  of  Bhugavi,  the  great  grand  son  of  (  Dhru)  va  Mitra,  belonging 
to  the  country  of  Pancalas-  fallen  which  stood  here  On  Kushana  coins 
eclectic  gods  lik  Salene,  Heleos,  Herakio,  Mao.  Nanaia,  Kumaro,  Bizago, 
Visakho,  Mazadoonah.  Skanda,  Mahasena,  Boddo,  Saka  Mana  Boddo  are 
found.  Sakuka  Saka  is  found  in  Behistan  inscription  of  Darius  Kushan 
Vanrspara  and  Kherapallana  are  known  in  Sarnath  image  inscription  = 
Vanaphar  Rajputs  of  Buxur. 

In  136  on  15th  day  of  the  first  month  of  Ashada.  on  this  day  were 
established  the  relics  of  the  Lord  by  Ur-Saka  of  Imtavriya  boys,  the 
Bactrian  resident  of  Naoche  town.  By  him  these  relics  of  the  Lord 
were  established  in  his  own  Bodhisattva  chapel  in  Dharraarajika  com- 
ponnd  of  Taksasila  tor  the  bestowal  of  the  health  of  ihe  Great  king, 
king  of  kings,  the  son  of  heaven,  the  Kushan.  Ayasa  ashadasa  masase 
divase  is  a  diva  (se  pradi)  stavita  Bhagavati  dhatu  ura  (sai  kena  (Im) 
tavria  putrama  Bahaliena  Naschae  nagare  vastavenatenime  prodistavita 
Bhagavati  dhatu  Dharmarajie  Taksasi  (la)e  tanuke  sat  veyahami  maha- 
rajasa  rajatirasa   devaputrasa  Khusanasa  arogadakshine. 

Gotami  Balasriputta  Satakanni  is  the  destroyer  of  Sakas  and  Palhavas, 
who  rooted  out  the  dynasty  of  Kakhariata  and  established  the  glory  of 
Sata-vahana  family  and  Sata  vahana  Era  78  A.D  (Saka  Yavana  Palhava- 
nisQdanasa  ;  nasa  khakarata  vafm)sa  niravasesa  karasa  SSta  vahana  Kulaya 
sapate  thatana  karasa.  Balasri  Inscription  Pandusena  caves,  Nasik).  "After 


BATAVAHANA  ANDHNAS  61 

Pratistanapura,  Gunarda  wrote  his  Katha  Sarita  Sapjara  in  Pisici 
lansfuage.  Some  of  the  inscriptions  of  Amaravati  of  the 
Vskatakas  (Votiaks)  and  Sata- Vahana  Andhras  show  close 
affinity:  K-G;  Ch-J;-t-d  Kanh  -  Krishna  ;  hhariya- 
bharya  Nominally  8ata- Vahana  Andhras  acknowledged  the 
suzerainty  of  the  Mauryas  ;  but  as  a  feudal  state,  they 
exercized  their  sovereign  authority.  Their  first  kiug  is  Sisnka, 
said  to  have  been  born  of  a  maiden  only  2J  years  old.  Next 
ruler  is  Krishna  who  in  the  inscriptions  is  mentioned  as  Kanh. 
About  28  B.  C.  they  asserted  their  own  independence,  and  even 
occupied  the  territories  of  Gardha  bhila  Vetala  Vikramaditya  who 
had  established  the  Vikrama  Era  in  67  B.  G.  Sata -Kami 
was  defeated  by  Kharvela.  Hala  wrote  in  Pisichi  Prakrit  an 
anthology  of  700  erotic  verses  called  -  Sattasai  =  Sapto  Sati. 
Gotami  putta  Sata-Kanni  defeated  the  Sakas  |  Pulumavi 
assumed  the  title  of  Sakari  Virud  Vikramaditya,  and  married 
the  daughter  of  Satrap  Rudra  Daman  of  Ujjaini,  and  was 
defeated  by  him.  Upto  225  A  D.  they  maintained  however 
their  shadowy  existence  and  was  ousted  by  Guptas  who  were 
under  the  Saka  influence  as  their  costumes  and  coins  testify. 

In  the  contest  for  supremacy  between  the  Greeks  and  the 
Romans  in  Asia  Minor,  Parni  Parthava  known  as  Pahlava, 
and  Arsasces    (Aryaka)  became  dominant.    Pahlava    with    Avars, 

sometime,  Vikramaditya  Malava  king,  ousted  this  Saka  dynasty  fupaditta 
Saginatain  vauisam  =  Sodas)  and  established  his  own  Era  ipayadavio  niao 
Samvachcharo  =  Samvat  57  BCi,  but  his  own  dynasty  was  uprooted 
(tassa  vi  vaiusa-.u  uppadiuna)  by  another  Saka  king  (SagarayS)  who 
established  an  era  of  his  own  when  135  years  of  the  Vikrama  era  had 
elasped  (pantise  vasasae  vikrama  samvachcharasse  voline  parivattiuna 
thavio  jenam  samvachcharo  niyo  ;  57  B.C. +  7S  AD  =  135  years).  This  is 
the  origin  of  Saka  Era  ^Saga  kala  janamattam;  K'llakacharya  Kathenaka). 
Both  Kaniska  ruled  from  78  AD— 101  Satakarni  (74  —  130)  crushed 
Ksharata  in  78  AD  and  established  Sata  or  Sali-vahana  era. 

Inscription  of  Pulumavi  :  On  the  first  day  of  the  first  of  2nd  month 
of  winter  in  the  eighth  year  of  Siri  Pulamavi,  ranii  of  Sata-Vahana, 
this  reservoir  is  sunk  by  householder  resident  of  the  gdtne  of  Vepuraka, 
belonging  to  mayor  (mika)  Kumara  Data  in  the  Janapada  Sata-Vahana 
Hara,  belonging  to  commander  Khamda  Naka-Skanda  Niiga." 
Amaravati  57  :  Success,  adoration  to  the  Blessed  One  isidam  namo 
bhagovato).  This  upright  slab  placed  is  the  pious  gift  of  Lik*,  the 
son  of  honorable  Negicha  (Siri  Negichasa  pusa),  Hasha's  (Harsa'si  wife 
(bhariy'i).  Nagurjuna  Konda  :  At  the  Mahachetya,  Mahidevi  Bapasirinika 
the  uterine  sister  (sodarya  bhaginiya)  Vasithiputa  Ikhaku  Siri 
Chatamula.  wife  of  Siri  Vira  Puruso  Data,  with  due  regard  for  her 
mother  Hamino  serinika,  for  the  sake  of  the  bliss  of  Nirvana  has  erected 
this  stone  pillar. 

Kaumud  Mahotsava  in  a  drama  is  5  acts,  written  by  a  woman  of 
Pataliputra  Kisorika  =  Vijjika  about  340  A.D.  Sundara  Varman.  Andhra 
king  of  Magadha,  had  no  son.     He   adopted  Candra   Sena   of   Karaskara 


62  THE  LITBRARr  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Khazars     and     Votiaks     overran     Iran,     Mesopotamia,    North^. 
Western  and   Southern   India.     In   Iran    they    were   known    as- 
Pehlavi,    and  later  Qazar   dynasties  ;    in    India   as   Abhiras    and. 
Gurjaras  of  Western    India,  Pallavas   of    Kanchi,  and    Vaktakas- 
—  Vindhya  Saktis  of  C.  India.    One  reddish  terracotta  anthropoid 
sarcophagus   of  early    Pallavas    has     been    preserved   in   Madras 
Museum  •  similar  many  anthropoid  sarcophagi  have  been   found 
at  Susa   in   the  midst  of   Parthian    ruins.     There  is  an  epigraph 
in  the    Vaikantha   Perri-Malla  temple  at  Conjeeveran    in   vv^hich 
it  is  mentioned  that   Paramesvara    Varman  of   a   collateral    line 
is   offered   a    crown     (mukuta)   in   the     shape  of   an   elephant's 
scalp    which  was    fashionable   helmet   of   Alexander's  successors- 
as    a  symbol   of  power   like  Plolemy  I  of   Egypt,  and  Agothocles 
of   Syracause.     Though  Parthians  like  the  Magis   had    near-kin 
marriage,   they   imitated    Greek  fashions,   and  they   were  called 
philo-Hellenes.     Pallavas    were    called  Mallas  ;  Nandi    Varman 
Pallava  Malla  was  the  ruler  of  Kinci.  Inscr  18,  19,  2d-25. 

Jatrikas  =  Kakkor  Jatas  of  Kara  valley  (allied  to  Arattas  and  belonging  to 
Massa  Jetae),  as  his  successor.  Candra  Sena  married  a  Licchavi  chiefs- 
daughter.  Sundara  Varman  later  had  a  son  Kalyana  Varman.  Candra  Sena 
with  Licchavis  revolted  against  Sundara.  Sundara  died  in  the  fight. 
Candra  Sena  crowned  himself  as  the  king  of  Magadha.  Prime  minister 
Mantra  Gupta  and  commander  Kanjaraka  of  Sundara  Varman  escaped 
with  Kalyana  Varman  to  Pamps  region  in  Vindhya  Hills.  Kalyana 
married  the  Yadava  princess  of  Mathura  of  Kirtisena.  To  quell  a 
rebellion  in  the  frontier,  Candra  Sena  left  Pataliputra  and  there  he 
died.  Kalyana  Varman  gathered  an  aimy  and  with  the  help  of 
Kirtisn's  forces  occupied  Pataliputra  and  was  coronated  at  Sura 
Ganga  palace.  This  drama  was  enacted  to  celebrate  the  occasion. 
Samudra  Gupta  fought  for  Puspapura  and  got  it  by  defeating  Nagasena, 
son  of  Kirtisena.  Devi  Candra  Guptam  is  a  drama,  (parts  of  it  are 
lost)  attributed  to  Visaka  Datta.  author  of  Mudra  Raksasa,  where  7,19  he 
calls  Parthiva  Candra  Gupta  Rama.  Gupta  was  the  king  of  Magadha.  His 
queen  was  the  pretty  Rastrakuta  princess  Dhruva  Devi.  Candra  Gupta, 
Rama's  brother,  was  in  love  with  Madhava  Sena, __ maid  of  Dhurva  Devi. 
Rama  Gupta  went  to  fight  the  turbulent  Sakas  of  Alipura  in  Jalandhara  = 
Aliwal  in  Kangra  Valley.  There  Rama  was  defeated  by  Sakas.  Saka 
ruler  demanded  the  pretty  queen  as  one  of  the  conditions  of  peace  whom 
Rama  Gupta  cowardly  surrendered  to  the  Saka  king.  Dhurva  Devi 
resented  this  humiliating  action  of  the  Gupta  king.  Dhurva  dressed  her 
comrade  Madhava  Sena  with  her  personal  garments  and  jewelleries.  In  that 
dress  Madhavi  come  to  her  lover  Candra  Gupta  and  told  him  about  the 
situation.  Candra  Gupta  dressed  as  Dhurva  Devi  entered  the  bed 
chamber  of  Saka  prince  who  was  drunken  and  was  expecting  her. 
Candra  Gupta  killed  him,  rescued  Dhurva,  removed  Rama  Gupta,  became 
the  king,  and  married  and  made  Dhurva  Devi  his  queen.  In  Candra 
Gupta's  coin,  one  finds  that  he  is  wearing  a  coat  (nisara)  with  pointed, 
ends  :  its  neck  is  beaded  and  tasseled.  His  trousers  are  creased  and 
inserted  within  high  boots  (khallaka).  Standing  by  him  is  Kumara  Devi, 
the  Licchavi  consort.    She  wears   loose  trousers  whose  ends  at  the  feet 


DEVAKULA  QIJPTAS  63 

Guptas  (Guptios  — Qoft  —  Copt)  came  under  the  Saka- 
Kushan  influence,  particularly  the  later.  The  marriage 
of  Candra  Gupta  to  Licchavi  Komaroi  princess  Kuinara  Devi 
is  attested  by  some  gold  coins  which  bear  on  the  obverse  a 
standing  male  figure  in  8aka-Kushana  trousers  and  coat, 
■  offering  a  ring  to  his  spouse  with  the  legends — Candra  on  the 
right  and  Kumara  Devi  on  the  left  ;  on  the  reverse  Licchavaya 
and  a  goddess  seated  on  a  lion.  His  son  Samudra  Guptn 
-succeeded  him  as  Licchavi  Dauhitra.  Ptolemy  (6.  13)  enumerates 
between  the  Oxus  and  the  Jaxartes  the  Saka  tribes  of  Karatai 
(Keraits=  Kiratas),  Komaroi  (Kumara).  Komedai  =  Knmuda, 
Massa  Getae  =  Masaka  Jats  etc..  Guptas  had  Dharana  Gotra  as 
mentioned  in  a  Frabhavati  Gupta's  inscription  Dharana  Gotra 
prevails  amonst  the  Jats  =  Massa  Jetae.  Early  Gupta  and 
Kushana  coins,  dress,  characters  in  inscrifrtions  are  similar.  Both 
of  them  use  devakula  for  their  shrines.  Both  the  dynasties  used 
and  encouraged  Sankskrit    literature.     And    Sanskrit   in   all    its 


are  rolled  up  to  make  them  appear  as  anklets,  and  held  in  place  by  a 
waist  band  (paryastikii,  a  heavy  necklace  and  a  scarp  igatTka;  hanging 
loose  from  her  shoulders.  In  Samudra  Gupta's  coin,  Samudra  wears  a 
half-sleeved  tunic  with  two  pointed  ends  hanging,  and  the  front  is 
embroidered  with  beads  on  both  sides  like  the  tunics  worn  by  Saka 
warriors  at  Mathur3.  His  trousers  are  tight-fitting,  but  seem  to  be 
stuffed  with  cotton  and  sewn  athwart.  Candra  Gupta  II  Vikramaditya's 
coins.  Candra  Gupta  wears  tunic  and  his  breeches  are  inserted  within 
high  leather  boots.  By  him  stands  his  queen  consort  Dhurva  Devi  ; 
in  one  coin  she  wears  tight-fighting  pajimas  whose  ends  are  rolled 
up  at  the  ankles,  and  whose  waist  band  is  a  very  wide  piece  of  different 
dark-colored  cloth  covering  the  entire  abdomen,  a  turban  on  the  head, 
and  a  scarp  hanging  from  the  shoulders.  In  another  coin  Dhurva  wears 
a  tight-fitting  sleeveless  bodice  (kurpasaka)  and  paj'mias  in  one  piece 
sewn  together  with  some  opening  at  the  shoulders  ;  the  ends  of  the 
pajamas  are  rolled  up.  Her  coiftnre  (Skt  kavara,  kavan)  is  arranged  in 
locks  {Skt  (z/«>^ri.  a  curl  of  hair  =  Gk  lygos.  bent  =  Ger.  locke.  a  tuft  of 
hair)  In  Kumar  Gupta's  coin.  Kum;ira  wears  a  long  tunic  over  trousers. 
Nivi  =  under  garment  ;  tarpaya=  woolen  garment. 

Samudra  Gupta  in  his  last  days  sent  his  viceregenc  son  Rama  Gupta 
fight  the  Kushans  at  Alipura  in  Jalandhara  =  .Aliwal  of  Kangra  valley; 
but  Rama  cowardly  surrendered  his  pretty  Rfistrakuta  wife  Dhurvsdevi 
to  Kushana  Rajatiraja  Maharaja  Toramma  Sahi  at  Baijnath  ;  Candra 
Gupta  II.  son  of  Abhira  Datt^  Devi,  rescued  her,  killing  the  Saka  chief, 
entering  his  auditorium  in  the  guise  of  a  theatrical  party,  and  married 
her,  making  her  his  chief  queen,  and  assumed  the  title  o(  Sakari 
Vikramaditya.  Sikhara  Svjimin  who  was  the  chief  minister  of  Rama 
became  also  the  minister  of  Candra  11  and  he  wrote  Nitisara  under  the 
name  of  Kamandaka.  He  had  married  before  Kuhera  Nagi.  and  her 
daughter  PrabhavaU  was  given  in  marriage  as  a  treaty  alliance  to 
Vakataka  ruler  Rudrasena  of  Kuntala-desa,  and  they  had  a  son 
Pravarasena.  When  Pravarasena  was  still  a  minor,  Rudrasena  died, 
iKalidasa   was   the   court   poet   of  Sakari   Candra   Gupta   Vikramaditya. 


54  THE  LITERAET  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT   INDIA 

branches,  under  the  Kushana  patronage  flourished  luxuriantly, 
and  reached  its  glory  under  the  auspices  of  the  Guptas.  One 
Devakula  enshrines  the  statue  of  the  Kushana  sovereign 
who  was  the  grandfather— pitamaha  -  of  Huvishka.  The  inscrip- 
tion of  Vima  also  mentions  another  devakula.  There  is  a 
cluster  of  devakidas,  commemorating  different  Kushana  rulers 
with  Kushana  inscriptions.  Devakula  is  the  royal  gallery  of 
portrait  statues.  Lakulesa  (  =  Nakulesvara^  is  the  erect  phallus 
on  which  the  portrait  is  sculptured.  Lakuli  developed  in  first- 
century  A.  D.  and  disciples  were  Kusika,  Gargya,  Kaurusa 
and  Maitreya.  Maitrayas  established  at  Somanatha  in 
Kathiwar  and  Kusikas  at  Mathura,  Upamitesvara  and  Kapils- 
vara  were  installed  in  the  teachers  shrine.  Mathura  Pillar 
Inscription  of  Candragupta.  "In  the  year  of  the  victorious 
reign  of  the  Bhattaraka  Maharaj  rajadhiraja,  the  illustrious 
Samudra  Gupta  on  the  fifth  of  the  bright  half  of  first  Ashada 
of  the  year  6  I  following  the  Gupta  Era.  820  A.D.  Mathura  pillar 
inscription  is  identical  with  those  of  the  Kushana  records.  No 
paleographic  peculiarities  demarcate  early  Gupta  inscriptions  from 
the  Kushana  script.  Candra  Gupta  II  Vikramaditya  (b83— 413) 
erected  the  Iron  Pillar,  now  near  Kutab  Minar  23'S"  high, 
weighing  more  than  six  tons,  specific  gravity  7.66.  For  the  Iron 
Pillar  inscription  is  in  fourth  century  Gupta  script,  and  he  was 
the  ruler  of  Northern  India  in  4th  century.  Samudra  Gupta  in 
his  Allahabad  Prasasti  calls  himself  8ri  Gupta  prapautasya 
Maharaja  Sri  Ghototkaca   pautrasya    Maharadhiraj    Sri    Candra 


Kalidasa  in  his  Malavika  Agni  Mitra,  mentions  Agni  Mitra,  the  Sunga 
ruler  of  Vedisa,  son  of  Pushya  Mitra.  who  drove  out  the  Yavana  raiders. 
Agni  Mitra  ruled  about  148  B.C.  Kalidasa  is  mentioned  in  the  Gupta 
Airole  temple  inscription  at  Mandasore  about  472  A.D.  by  poet 
Vatsabhatti  by  incorporating  materials  from  Meghaduta  and  Ritusamhara. 
It  appears  that  Candragupta  Vikramaditya  sent  Kalidasa  as  a  tutor  tO' 
his  protege  and  grandson  Pravarasena.  Prabhavati  made  her  last  grant 
of  a  piece  of  land  to  her  Guru  Rama  Giri  on  the  lake  Ramtek  near 
Nagpar.  Kalidasa  in  his  Meghadutam  makes  the  Yaksha  separated 
from  his  beloved  live  in  the  aiboral  asrama  of  Ramagiri,  and  when  he 
saw  a  cloud  rise  from  the  lake,  he  begged  it  to  carry  his  message  of 
love  and  bereavement  to  his  beloved.  Kalidasa  very  likely  went  to  the 
Ramagiri  hermitage  with  Pravarasena  when  his  mother  was  spending 
her  last  days  with  her  Guru.  But  Kalid3sa  was  not  favorably  received 
in  tlie  Vakataka  Kuntala  ('ourt  as  mentioned  in  the  Ucita  Vicara  Carca 
Kavya  Mala.  In  Rajasekhara's  Kavya  Mimamsa  Sriiigara  Prakasa  when 
Vikramaditya  asked  Kalidasa  how  Kuntalesvara  was  spending  his  time, 
Kalidasa  replied  that  he  was  always  busy  kissing  the  cheeks  of  maidens. 
But  at  the  command  of  Vikramaditya  Kalidasa  wrote  the  Prakrit  Kavya. 
Setuvanda,  but  published  in  the  name  of  Kuntalesvara  Pravarasena  as 
mentioned  by  Rama  Dasa  in  his  commentary  on  the  Setuvandha.  There 
are  some  who  believe  that  Kalidasa  was  the  court  poet  of  Vetala  Gardha- 
villa  Vikramaditya  of  Ujjaini  who  established  Vikrama  Era  in  57  B.C. 


HONAS  65 

Gupta  putrasya.  Like  Kushana  Vasudeva,  Samudra  Gupta 
was  a  Siva  (Lakulisa)  worshipper  and  Buddhist.  He  was  the 
patron  of  Vasubandhu,  the  Buddhist  writer.  He  permitted 
iVIeghavarna  of  Ceylon  to  build  a  monastery  at  Gaya  for 
Ceylonese  pilgrims.  He  himself  also  erected  some  of  the  build- 
ings o'  Nalanda  monastic  university.  Candra  Gupta  II  made 
matrimonial  alliance  with  Vakataka  ruler  Kudra  Singh  II  by 
giving  his  daughter  Prabhavati  to  him.  Vakataka  Inscription 
from  Ganj  Vyagradeva  bows  down  at  the  Vakataka  mabaraj  Sri 
Prithvisena  for  the  benefit  of  his  parents  (matapitro  punyarthe). 
No  27  on  a  Pillar  :  Of  Village  Vatharasa  Vakataka  house- 
holder  house  wife- by  Thera  Bodhika  of   his   wife   Chaii^una 

with  grandsons,  friends  and  relatives  for  the  increment  of  his 
life  /game  Vatharasa  gaha-patisa  Vakatakasa  gaha  patiki...na 
therena  Bodhikena  bhariyaya  Chamunya  sa  bhatukehi...  sa 
mita  bandhavehi  cha  apana  ayu-vadhanika.  The  early 
Vakatakas  called  themselves  Hariti  and  Madhariputras  like 
Satakarnis,  Aviras,  Kadambas  and  Chalukyas. 

Peace    and     prosperity     of     India     under   the    Guptas    and 
Vakatakas     who     fostered     arts,      industries,      literature      and 

Guptas  were  eclectic  in  their  religion  like  the  Kushans.  They  not 
only  built  Vishnu  temples,  they  also  built  Siva  temples  at  Bhumarc  in 
Nagod  and  at  Khoh  in  Nagod  ;  Parvati  temple  at  Kuthara  in  .Ajaigus. 
Their  Sapta  Mairikas  were  Brahml.  Mahesvari.  Kaumarl,  Vaisnavi, 
Vasuli,  Mahendri,  CamundT.  Gananam  (  of  genos  )  tvam  Ganapatim 
havamhe  =  guardean  deity  of  the  clan,  entitled  to  the  first  fruits  of  the 
community  edeavours  and  enterprises.  In  Gadhwa  stone  inscription, 
Candra  Gupta  II  and  Kumara  Gupta  are  called  Parama  Bhagavata. 

In  117  of  the  Gupta  era,  there  is  an  inscription  at  Karandane  in 
Faizabad  UP  by  Prithiva  Sena,  minister  of  Kumara  Gupta,  son  of 
Sikharasvamin,  chief  minister  of  Candra  Gupta  II,  incised  on  the  linga 
of  a  stone  image  with  Name  Mahadevaya. 

An  iron  blade  of  meteoric  origin  in  an  ancient  pyramid.  Tut-ank- 
Amen's  dagger  of  Khatti  origin  with  an  iron  blade  has  been  found  in 
his  tomb  1350  B.C.  A  furnace  for  smelting  iron  of  1195  B.C.  has  been 
found  at  Gerar  where  iron  sickles  were  manufactured  by  Philistines. 
Ramases  mentions  Philistines  in  1190  B.C.  In  Amos  (  9.7  )  Philistines 
came  from  Caphtor  '  Keftiu  in  Crete  ).  Iron  was  introduced  into 
Mesopotamia.  Iran  and  NW  India  in  the  later  part  of  second  millenium. 
At  Kushan,  Nehavent  and  in  Luristan,  Iron  weapons  like  poniards,  lance 
and  arrow  heads  of  1150-1125  B.C.  have  been  found;  at  Susa  about 
900  B.C.  The  success  of  Roman  soldiers  was  due  to  the  weapons  and 
arms  of  iron  and  steel.  The  shields  of  Roman  soldier  had  iron  borders 
and  were  studded  with  the  same  metal.  Their  spears  had  the  iron  head 
and  their  swords  were  of  Spanish  steel.  In  Roman  dwellings  of  Britain, 
iron  door  keys,  hinges,  knives  and  scissors  have  been  found  on  an 
extensive  scale. 

Hunas  rooted  themselves  deeply  and  widely  in  the    Indian    soil    like 
their  predicessors,  the  Sakas.     Scythians   and    Huns  were    practically   the 


66  THB  LITBEABY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

astronomy,  were  suddenly  disturbed  as  the  Hunas  defeating  the 
Sasanians  in  Iran  fell  upon  India.  A  century  of  life  of  ease 
had  softened  the  Guptas,  and  they  fell  before  the  fierce  Huna 
onslaughts.  Kidara  Kushans  at  first  as  conquerors  of  Sasanians, 
as  their  vassal  allies  ruled  a  vast  empire,  extending  from 
Balkh  to  Peshwar  ;  three  rulers  Kidarasha,  Piro  Sha  S'itrapa 
Varo  Shahi,  Beddha-bala  and  Bhasa.  But  the  white  (sveta=Zd. 
spaeto  =  Goth,  hveit- Ger-weiss  =  Lith.  szweitu)  Hans  Jouan- 
Jouen  (Kushan  Zabol  =  Br  Jabula.  Jauvla)  defeating  the  Sasa- 
nians and  Kidara  Kushans,  occupied  N.  India,  They  estab- 
lishsd  themselves  in  the  Gupta  stronghold  of  Ujjaini  under  their 
leaders  ToraiTa-hu)- Mana  who  is  called  Jauvla  in  his  Kyula 
inscription.  But  his  successor  Mihiragula  made  Hakala  (Sialkot  =* 
Euthydemia)  his  capital  in  002  AD.  in  retaliation  of  his  oppres- 
sion Yasadharman  known  also  as  Vishnu  Vardhana,  called 
Kalki  (Khalka).  of  mixed  Karkota  Naga  (Karkitani  and  Kidara 
descent,  jointly  with  Maukharies  (of  Maga  origin)  and  Bala- 
ditya,  a  Gupta  scion  of  Magadha,  inflicted  a  severe  d<^-feat  on 
Mihiragula  who  however  escaped  with  his  army  to  Kashmir, 
where  he  began  to  rule.  There  too  the  Karkotas  under 
Durlava-Vardhana  626-565  defeating    the    rapacious    Huns,    and 

same  people, — Tatar  VVusuns— (tall  ones  )  =  Criin,  blue- eyed  devils  — 
different  blends  of  the  Turks  with  Huang-nu  Mongoloids,  Ural-Altaiks 
and  Sarmatians.  Avars,  Uigurs  are  classified  with  the  Sakas  as  well  as 
Hunas.  According  to  Cliand  Rason,  Pa-vars  (  Paramaras  ),  Parihar 
(  Gurjara  Pratiharas  of  Khazar  descent  ),  Chauhan  (  Chahumanas)  and 
Solanki,  otherwise  called  Chalukyas  were  called  Agni  Kiilas.  Kitsa  = 
Kuci  Tocharian  Huns  (  Tukhara  =  Thakura  )  of  Kuch  of  Khotand  were 
called  Yen-Ki  (  Agnis  )  =  U-ngo  =  U-go  =  Urgu  (  Uraga  ).  Rhoja  Raja 
(  995-1060  ).  of  the  Paramaras  of  Malwa  is  famous  in  legends  and  history. 
To  him  are  ascribed  many  books  on  astronomy  and  architecture.  He 
established  a  Sanskrit  college  of  learning  at  Dhara,  the  ruins  of  which 
still  exist,  His  Bhojpur  Lake  testifies  to  the  skill  of  his  engineers. 
Gurjara- Pratiharas  of  Kanauj  had  in  the  beginning  their  capital  at 
Bhimnal  in  S  Rajputana  under  Naga  Bhatta.  In  816  the  capital  was 
transferred  to  Kanauj.  Mihira  (  840-893  ),  Viruds  as  Bhoja,  Adi  Varaha 
and  Paavasha.  ruled  an  extensive  empire,  extending  from  the  Himalayas 
to  Narvada,  Sutlej  to  Bengal.  His  son  Mahendra  Pal  was  the  pupil  af 
Rajasekhara,  author  of  Karpura-Manjuri.  Chahumanas  ruled  in  Sambar 
and  Ajmir  area.  Its  ruler  Visaldeo  conquered  Delhi  =  Dhillika  from  the 
Tomaras,  another  Huna  clan.  Visaldeo  composed  Hara-Kali  Nataka. 
His  successor  nephew  PrithvirajRaithora  as  a  chivalrous  lover  abducted 
charming  Samyukta  from  her  Sayamvara  marriage  festival,  the  beautiful 
daughter  of  his  maternal  causin  -  Gahadvala  [  possibly  the  same 
Ephthalite-Vetala  Gardhavila,  a  white  Hun  clan)  =  Rathor  king  of  Kanauj. 
and  eloped  with  her  to  Delhi  where  their  marriage  was  celebrated  with 
pomp  and  publicity. 

To  avenge  this  insult,  Jaycandra  formed   an    alliance   with   Md  Ghori 
to  attack  Prithviraj.     Prithviraj  had   in    1182    attacked  Candra-Atreyas  - 


KARKOTA  N^OAS  67 

marrying  the  daughter  of  Gupta  Baladitya  became  the  domi- 
nant power,  Karkota  Nagas  practised  ophiolatry- snake  worship. 
Mihirgulas  however  ruled  Valabhi  aa  Maitrakas.An  incised 
earthen  ware  found  in  Kathiwar  dated  665-567  A.D.  with  the 
name  of  Guha-Sena.  a  Maitraka  prince  of  Valabhi.  And  Khazars 
who  came  with  the  Hunas  established  some  large  Gurjara 
kindoms  in  Rajputana  and  Western  India.  Yasadariuiin 
assumed  the  title  of  Vikramaditya,  boasts  however  in  his  two 
pillars  of  victory,  erected  in  683  at  Mandsor=  Dasapura  that  he 
got  suzerainty  of  the  eastern  region  up  to  Lohitya  (Austric  Luit  = 
the  river  Brahmaputra'.  Karkota  Pushya-bhnti,  allied  to  Pushya- 
mitra  Sungas,  Jprabhakara  Vardhana  conquered  the  Punjab 
and  assumed  the  title  of  Maharajidhiraj  of  Thauoswsr  ; 
Maukhari  Varmans  curved  out  a  kinf;dom  with  Kanauj  as  their 
capital.  Though  thus  Gupta  empire  was  dismembered,  many 
of  the  Gupta  nobles  remained  as  feudatory  chiefs,  acknowledging 
the  suzerainty  of  either  the  Karkotas  or  the  INIaukharies, 
waiting  to  regain  their  ancient  glory.  Deva  Gu|)ta  of  Malava 
under  the  Vardhanas,  and  Sasanka  Narendra  Gupta  of  Kama 
Suvarna  under  Mahasenagupta  and  Maukharies  made  an 
united  effort  to  capture  Kanauj,  Though  Sasanka  took  the 
initiative  of  conquest,  it  was  Deva  Gupta's  armv  that  captured 
Kanauj,   killing  the    Maukhari   ruler   Graha  Varman.     And    his 


•  Chandel  stronghold  of  Mahava,  thereby  alienated  many  of  the  Huna 
tribes  who  had  occupied  northern  and  western  India.  But  with  the  aid 
of  many  others,  Prithviraj  bravely  fought  the  invaders  at  Tarain  between 
Thanesvar  and  Karnal,  encouraged  by  his  wife  Samyukta  who  was  by 
his  side  and  melted  her  gold  ornaments  to  make  the  bullets,  and  the 
invaders  were  routed.  Reinforced.  Md  Ghori  attacked  again  in  1192, 
but  deserted  by  some  of  his  former  allies,  Prithviraj  was  defeated  and 
brutally  cut  into  pieces.  Adult  males  of  Ajmere  were  put  to  death,  and 
women  taken  as  slaves.  Now  the  turn  of  Jaycandra  came,  for  not  giving 
sufficient  aid  to  his  ally.  He  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Chandawar 
near  Etawah.  Kanauj  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  invader.  And  those 
of  the  Gahadvals  =  Rathors  that  could  escape  fled  to  Jodhpur  whence 
they  established  a  kingdom  Solankis  =  Chalukyas  of  Gujrat  with 
Anhilwara  as  their  capital  ;  Chalukyas  of  Badami  5.S0  6S9  ;  Chalukyas 
of  Kalyami  973-1190  ;  Hoysalas  of  Dwarasamudra.  Senas  of  Bengal; 
Haihaya  (  Hiao-Hui  )  Kalachuries  of  Chedi  ;  Gangas  of  Kolar  and 
Ganjam  .,  Yadavas  of  Devagiri  and  Vijayanagara.  Vikrampur  ;  Chandra- 
Atreyas  =  Chandels  of  Jejakabhuti.  Kirtivarman  Chandel  was  not  only 
a  patron  of  learning,  he  is  reputed  to  be  the  author  of  Probodha 
Candradoya,  a  dramatized  version  of  the  diflferent  schools  of  philosophy, 
he  also  built  Kirdta  (  Kerait  )  Sdf^ara,  as  possibly  the  Chandels 
were  included  in  the  Mongoloid-Turkish  Hunnish  tribe  of  Keraits. 
Their  architecture  at  Khajurah,  a  Turkish  name,  is  famous  for  their 
temples  and  basreliefs  in  striking  realistic  poses.  Guhilots  -Guha.  Dattas  — 

>  Guhia-putras  (  500-600  )  of  Idar,  600-700  of  Mewar,  a  branch  of  the 
Maitrakas  of  Valafehi. 


58  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

queen     Eajyasri.     sister   of     Eajya     Vardhana    of     Thaneawar 
Pushyabhutis,   was  put  into   prison   as    she    haughtily    repulsed 
the   amorous  approaches  and    to   entertain    the   victor  with  her 
physical   charms,  as   customary   of   the  age.     So  quickly  was  it 
done  about    604   A.D.  that    Kajya   Vardhana   heard    of   the  war, 
the  capture   of   Kanauj,    killiug  of  his    brother-in   law,  the  dis- 
honour   of    his     pretty      and     proud     sister    Eajyasri.      Eajya 
Vardhana   at   once    started    with  a  force    of    10,000   cavalry  to 
avenge   this    wrong.     Deva    Gupta  was    defeated.     But   before 
he  could  capture  Kanauj  or   rescue  his   sister,    it  is  said   he  was 
treacherously  killed  by  Sasanka,     Sasanka   however  as  an  act  of 
chivalry    released     Rajyasri.   or     Eajyasri     managed    herself   to 
escape  to  Vindhya  Hills.     When  Harsa  Vardhana  was   about   to 
ascend    the  throne   of   his   elder   brother,    be  was    told   of   the 
escape   of   his   sister.     Harsa   traced  her   in    the  Vindhyii  forest 
when  in    dispair    she    was    going  to   commit    suicide.     Now   a 
sanguine  war  took  place  between    Harsa    Vardhana  and  Sasanka 
Gupta,    Harsa    instigated    Vaskara    Varman,    Maukhari  Viceroy 
of  Kamrupa,   to   attack   Kama   Suvarna  in   the    rear.     Vaskara 
Varman    occupied    some   eastern    portions   of  Kama  Suvaroa  as 
his    Nidhanpur     copper      plate   inscription   indicates.     Basanka 
was  defeated  by  Harsa,  but  not  before  649,   for  in  an    inscriptioD 
of  that   year,   he  is   invoked  as  a  suzerain   and    in   64^3,  Sasanka 
ruled    Magadha,  Bengal  and    Chilka  Lake  region.     Harsa   direc- 
ted   his    campaign    against    Sasanka    in   Ganzam.     Harsa  made 
Kanauj    his   capital   and  became  the  overlord  of  Northern  India^ 
assuming     the     designation     of     Siladitya.      Harsa's    Era    605, 
He   maintained   diplomatic    relationship    with    China.     He  was 
the  patron  of  the  Chinese    pilgrim    Hiuen    Tsang    who   travelled 
under    his   aegis   all     over     India     during    his     14    years   stay 
(5clO-644).     Harsa  was  not  only  an  enlishtened  ruler,  but  to  him 
are  ascribed  the   dramas   of   Nagananda,   Eatnavali    and    Priya 
darsika.     Harsa  Siiaditya   had  a  daughter   who    was    married  to 
Dhurvabhata    of    Valabhi.     His    son    Dharasena      after    Harsa's- 
death    about   6i6,   assumed     the    title     of     Parama-Bhattarak. 
Maharajadhiraj    Paramesvara  Cakravarti.     But   one    of   Harsa's 
generals,     Arjana    of  Arjurnayanas,    declared    Tirhut    an    inde- 
pendent   kingdom  ;  bat  as  Arjuna    attacked    the    Chinese    envoy 
Wang   Hiuentse,    Tibetans     and     Nepalese,    who    were     under 
Chinese  suzerainty,  defeated   and    captured  Arjuna    and  Tirhut 
remained    under   them    up   to    703   A.D.   Aditya    Sena    claimed 
Magadha     as    his      own.      Kamala     Ayudha  -  Yasavarman     of 

Samyukta  thus  addressed  her  lover  :  To  die  is  the  destiny  of  man  ;  but 
to  die  well  is  to  live  for  ever.  Therefore,  beloved,  think  not  of  self  or  me-, 
but  of  immortality.  Let  your  sword  divide  your  foe,  and  I  will  in  this 
world  as  well  as  hereafter  be  always  your  ardhangini."  And  Samyukta 
mounted  the  funeral  pyre  when  she  learnt  that  Prithviraj  who  had  fought 
with  reckless  valor  was  killed  by  the  enemy. 


AYUDHA8  59 

Ayudhas  (Ugra  Ayudha  Brahmadatta  — Yaudheya3-»  Jats  who 
ruled  from  Bawalpnr  to  Saharanpur,  Ludhiana  to  Delhi  with 
headquarter  at  Yodhpur,  up  to  first  century  A.  D.  over- 
thrown by  Kausikas.  a  Huna  people.  Their  coins  found  iu  this- 
region  contain  an  angry  peacock— Mauraka,  known  as  Malta. 
Their  war  god  was  Kartikeya- Kumara  ;  Arjunayanas  as 
in  Agra  and  Joypur  area  2C0  BC.  =  4U0  A.  D.  working  in 
co-operation  with  their  northern  neighbor  Yaudheyas  -.  on  their 
coins  are  found  Arjunayananam  Jah)  occupied  Kauauj,  a 
maternal  cousin  of  Harsa  Vardhana.  But  as  feudatories  were 
reluctant  to  acknowledge  him,  Yasavarman  marched  over 
Harsa's  dominion  triumphantly,  as  described  by  Vakpati  in  his 
Prakrit  Gaurovaha.  Yasavarmau  was  not  only  a  great  statesman, 
but  also  a  patron  of  learning.  Bhavabhuti,  the  dramatist  and 
poet,  author  of  Malati-Madhava,  was  _his  court  poet  like 
Vakpati.  In  allianca  with  Karkota  Lalita  Aditya  of  Kashmir, 
Ayudha  Yasovarman  made  a  common  cause  with  the  Chinese, 
and  led  an  expedition  against  the  Tibetans.  But  the  alliance 
fell  through.  Lalita  Aditya  attacked  Yasavarman,  and 
Yasavarman  was  defeated  and  killed. 

With  the  defeat  and  death  of  Yasavarman,  not  only 
Kanauj.  but  Lalita  Aditya  acquired  the  right  of  suzerainty  over 
the  vast  conquests  of  his  former  ally.  To  assert  this  right,  he 
marched  towards  the  east  and  overran  Magadha.  Gaura,  Vanga,. 
Kamarupa  and  Kalinga  ;  in  the  west  he  conquered  Malava, 
Gujerat  and  defeated  the  Arabs  on  the  border  of  Sind  j  in, 
N.  W.  he  defeated  the  Dard.  Kambojas  and  Turks.  .But  with, 
the  death  of  Lalita  Aditya  (724-7(50)  his  empire  broke  into  pieces. 

Vajra  Ayudha,  son  of  Kamala  (Tib.  Ka-ma-la- lotus) 
Ayudha  Yasavarman,  asserted  his  independence,  and  occupied 
Kanauj.  To  punish  him  VinayaAditya  Jayapira  (779-B46), 
grandson  of  Lalitaditya,  marched  against  Vajia  Ayudha. 
Ayudhas  fought  valiantly.  Vajra  Ayudha  died,  leaving  Indra 
Ayudha  on  Kanauj  throne.  Indra  Ayudha  was  defeated,  and 
his  brother  Gakra  Ayudha  was  placed  on  the  throne.  Indra 
Ayudha  sought  the  assistance  of  Gurjara  Pratihara  king  Vatsar 
of  Villamal  who  attacked  Kanauj,  defeated  Cakra-Ayudha  and 
re-instated  Indra-Ayudha  on  the  throne,  and  advanced  towards 
Gaura  Banga.  But  the  domination  of  Gurjaras  under  Vatsa 
did  not  last  long  as  he  was  forced  to  flee  to  Rajputana,  being 
defeated  by  Rastra-kuta  king  Dhruba  Daravarsa  (78d-';9J)  whose 
conquests  extended  up  to   the   Ganges.     There    was    no   central 

In  an  inscription  of  Jayadeva  II,  the  Licchavi  king  of  Nepal  748, 
kings  father-in-law  Harsa  of  Bhagadatta  family  is  the  lord  of  Gauda,. 
Udra,  Kalinga  and  Kosala.  Kamarupa's  Bhagadatta  who  is  called  a 
Mleccha  might  be  of  the  same  Licchavi  family.  Kara  dynasty  of 
Kalinga  claims  the  descent  from  Licchavi  Bhagadatta  family. 


*60  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

government  in    Magadha   and   Bengal.     Feudatory   chiefs   ruled 
as  they  pleased. 

In  Khalimpur  Copper  Plate  issued  in  the  82nd  year  of  Dharma 
Pal  who  married  Rastrakuta  Tunga  princess  Ranna  Devi  :  His 
•son  was  the  crest  jewel  of  heads  of  kings,  illustrious  Gopala 
whom  army  chiefs  (prakritis)  elected  as  their  Supremo  to  put 
an  end  to  disorder  (  matsyanyayam  apohitam  prakribhir 
lalashnyah  karam  grahitah  Sri  Gopala  it  kshitisa  sirasam 
churamanistat  sutah).  £n  the  fifth  verse,  Gopala's  wife  is 
meationed  as  Dedda  Davi.  Rajatarangini  Jalauka  Vv'as  similarly 
elected  as  king  by  prakritis.  In  Kashmir  there  was  a  Didda,  an 
able  regent  of  ber  son  Abhimanya,  daughter  of  the  Kushan  Sbahi 
chief  of  Lohara.  Kusban  Shahi  dynasty  of  Kabul  as  of 
Bathindah  had  the  designation  of  Pal.  as  Jai  Pal,  Anand 
Pala.  Pallavas  of  Travancore  had  also  Pala  title.  Palas  in  the 
Kamauli  grant  of  Vaidyadev  belong  to  Mihirasya  Vamsa. 

In  the  Indra  Copper  Plate.  Nava  Pala  calls  himself 
Kamboja  Vamsa-tilaka.  grants  land  in  \'afdhamana  Bhukti  to 
Pravakar  Sarman  (Sanscrifcized  for  Shaman  priest  ),  son  of 
Anukul  Misra  (Saskritized  form  of  Mihira).  At  Rajagriha  and 
Pataliputra,  Kusbana  inscriptions  have  been  found.  At  Tamluk. 
a  Kanishka  copper  coin  has  been  unearthed.  In  Bogra  and 
Murshidabad,  gold  coins  of  Vasudeva  have  been  observed.  So 
it  is  likely  that  the  Palas  as  scions  of  Kushana  Sahis  settled  in 
northern  Bengal  which  Ram  Pal  calls  his  ancestral  place  and 
rescued  it  from  Kaivarta  (Kerwat)  king  Vima.  Palas  were  ardent 
Buddhists  like  Kushans.  Gopal  organized  entire  Bengal  and 
Magadha  in  an  administrative  unit.  He  built  the  Nalanda 
Vihara  near  Odantapur.  His  and  Dedda  Devi's  son  Dharma 
Pal  (769  —815)  in  alliance  with  Rastrakutas  conquered  N  India, 
put  on  Kanauj  throne  his  protege  and  subservient  Cakra 
Ayudha.  In  his  Kalimpur  mscription.  he  boasts  that  his 
•coronation  was  attended  by  vassal  kings  of  Bhoja  (Gurjara), 
Matsya,  Madra.  Kuru.  Avanti,  Gandhara,  Yavana  and  Kira 
(Kangra)  which  is  also  carroborated  in  the  Bhagalpur  inscrip- 
tion of  Narayana  Pal.  He  built  the  great  monastic  university 
of  Vikramasila,  containing  107  Viharas  and  6  Colleges,  where 
108  professors  were    engazed    to    teach    various     subjects    under 

68  7:^  K^nyakumari  Inscription  of  Rajendra  Deva  in  Sanskrit  : 
"The  king  Madhurantaka  was  the  son  or  Rajaraja  conquering  hostile 
kings  by  the  valour  of  his  arms  ;  he  made  Manya  kheta.  a  sporting 
ground  for  his  army  His  generals  defeated  the  kings  of  Kuluta  and 
Xltkala,  Kalinga  and  Bangendra,  who  reached  the  Ganga  whose  banks 
slipped  down  the  river  by  the  battering  of  his  elephant  brigade  ;  the 
water  of  the  Ganga  was  carried  in  pots  on  the  heads  of  kings.  His  army 
crossed  the  sea  and  set  fire  to  Katah  (Kota  in  Malaya)  which  was  not 
possible  for  other  Kings  to  conquer.  What  act  was  impossible  for  this 
.monarch  Rajendra  ChoU  !" 


SENA  BAIDTA8  fili 

the  presidency  of  Buddha  Jnauapada.  Dharma  Pal  was 
succeeded  by  his  youngest  son  Deva  Pal  (83l-ti40'.  born 
of  Ranna  Devi,  daughtei-  of  Rastrakuta  king  Govinda  111, 
superceding  the  claim  of  Tribhuvana  Pal,  his  eldest  son.  due  to 
Rastrakuta  influence.  In  alliance  with  Kastrakuta,  he  defeated 
the  Gurjaras.  His  general  Lausena  conquered  Kamarupa  and 
Kalinga.  He  removed  his  capital  from  Pataliputra  to  Mudgala 
gin  (Monghyr).  His  successor  was  Mahi  Pal.  During  his 
reign  Rajendra  Chola  led  his  victorious  expedition  to  the  banks 
of  the  Ganges.  He  had  to  defend  N  Bengal  from  the  incursions 
of  Kambojas  (Kochs),  and  Bihar  against  the  attacks  of 
Kalachuris,  Cholas  and  Challukyas  (Sholanki -Hun  Holanki). 
Palas  were  not  only  valiant  fighters,  they  were  patrons  of  learn- 
ing. Their  long  peaceful  reign  was  marked  by  agricultural,  and 
cultural  growth  of  Bengal.     Rastra-kuta  =  Ratta-  Reddi. 

About  1068,  his  Samanta  chief  Acha  made  the  kings  of  Kalinga 
Vanga,  Maru.  Gurjara.  Malava,  Chera,  Chola,  subject  to  his  sovereign. 
Inscription  of  Devangene  2,  3.  Epigr  Cam  XI,  dated  1121,  1124  refers  to 
the  conquest  of  Anga,  Banga,  Cauda.  Magadha  and  Nepal  by 
Chalukya  Vikrimaditya  when  Senas  (Saiyina  Baid  Bomrna  Pujaris 
of  Bhutasthanas  of  Karnat  ;  three  Baid  nobles  are  mentioned  by  a  Pandian 
king  of  Sth  century,  possibly  of  Chalukya  =  Solanki  =  Hun  Holanki 
descent  were  establishing  their  domination  in  Bengal  when  Karnata 
chief  Nanyadeva  was  consolidating  his  position  in  Magadha  and  Nepal. 
In  the  Madhai  Nagar  grant,  Samanta  Sena,  the  head  garland  of  the 
Karnata  Bhrama  Kshatriya.  slaughtered  thedespoiler  of  Lakshmi  (fortun'::) 
of  KarnSta  in  battles,  waged  in  South  India  According  to  Deopari 
inscription,  Vira  Senas  were  Dakshinatya  Kshanindri  (chief  warlords 
Ballala  =  Vellala).  A  large  number  of  Sena  Baidyas  of  Bengal  are 
affiliated  to  Saktr  gotra,  that  is,  of  Huna  Sogdian  descent.  Sena  Vaidyas 
introduced  Saivism,  snake  shrines  (of  Nayars  ;  Kanarese  and  Telugu 
Mancamva  =  Manasa),  Tantric  worship  with  phallic  magic  circles  (Cukra), 
and  orthodoxy  in  place  of  Catholicism  of  the  Palas.  Snake 
symbolizes  amongst  the  Romans'  on  the  atrium  the  family  Getitus, 
the  generating  power  and  vitality  of  the  xetis,  Rhea  was  the  snake  goddess 
of  the  Cretans  with  snakes  coiled  on  her  arms,  in  her  hands,  round 
her  body  and  headdress,  In  ancient  Egypt  the  Delta  goddess  Wazet 
was  in  the  form  of  a  serpent  double  of  Buto  and  Hathor. 

Rajendra  Chola  defeated  Rana  Sura  of  Dakshina  Rada  (  Takkan 
Ladam  in  Turamalai  inscription),  Govinda  Candm,  the  ruler  of  Vanga, 
who  fled  away  from  his  elephants  Then  Rajendra  Chola  defeated  Mahi 
Pal  of  Uttara  Rada  (  Uttira  Ladam  ).  In  Rama  Carita  of  Sandhakara 
Nandi,  Lakshmi  Sura,  ruler  of  Mandhara,  is  mentioned  who  helped  R&m 
Pal  to  crush  the  rebellion  of  Kaivarta  chieftain  Dibbaka.  Vijaya  Sena 
married  Vilasa  Devi,  a  daughter  of  a  Sura  chieftain  of  west  Rada.  Vigraha 
Pal  married  Haihaya  Kalachuri  princess  Lajju  Devi,  to  curb  the  rising 
power  of  the  Gurjara  Pratiharas  Their  son  was  Narftyan  Pal.  Gurjara 
Bhoja  Deva  defeated  Narayan  Pal  (  Sagartal  Inscription  ).  With  Bhoja 
came  Gurjara  Pratihara  chief  Kakka  of  Mandor  who  won  ^fame  in 
conquering      Mudgala-giri      (  Mongyr  )     about     883    A.    D.     Kalachuri 


69  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANOIBNT  INDIA 

Chalukya  (Hun  Holanki  —  Solanki)  Satyasraya  Vikramaditya 
of  Karnat  led  a  victorious  expedition  against  Bengal  and  Assam 
(Ahoms,  a  branch  of  Thais). 

Gunambha  Deva  who  came  with  Bhoja  spoilt  the  fortunes  (  Gaura  Raja 
Lakshmi  )  of  Gaura  king  (  Epi  Indica  7,  89  ),  Narayana  Pal's  son 
Rajya  Pal  married  Rastrakuta  princess  Bhagya  Devi,  daughter  of  Jagat 
Tunga,  to  counteract  the  influence  of  Gurjaras.  as  Bhoja's  son  Mahendra 
Pal  incorporated  Tirabhukti  and  Magadha  in  his  vast  Gurjara  Pratihara 
empire.  Kalachuri  Kama  Dev  in  his  inscription  at  Goharowa  says  that 
his  father  Gangaya  Deva  Vikramaditya  defeated  Kira  (  Kangra  ),  Anga, 
Kuntala  and  Utkala  ruler  (  Ep.  Ind.  XI,  143  ),  The  inscription  of 
Ahlan  Devi,  daughter-in-law  of  Yasah-Karna  mentions  that  Kama 
occupied  Kanyakubja  and  his  son  Yasah  Kama  advanced  east 
through  Camparanya  =  Champaran  in  Bihar.  Ep.  Indica  2,  11.  Gahadval 
Govinda  Candra  occupied  Kanyakubja  in  1114  and  dominated  most  of 
Magadha  to  help  the  Palas  against  the  Senas.  Bilhana  informs  that 
Chalukya  Somesvara  of  Kalyana  between  1044-68,  and  his  son 
Vikramaditya  led  expeditions  and  defeated  the  king  of  Gaura  and 
Kamarupa  and  left  behind  Karnatakas  in  Tirhut,  Nepal,  Rara.  Somevara 
also  destroyed  the  power  of  Kama,  lord  of  Dahala.  Vigraha  Pal 
strengthened  his  position  by  marrying  Yauvana  Sri,  daughter  of  Kama. 
In  the  Belava  copper  plate  of  Bhoja  Varman,  it  is  mentioned  that  the 
Varmans  were  the  kinsmen  of  Varmans  of  Simhapura,  and  Vajra  Varman. 
the  ornament  of  Yadava  soldiers  (Yjdavinam  camunam),  was  always 
victorious.  And  his  son  Jatavarman  who  married  Vira  Sri,  daughter 
of  Kama,  extended  his  supremacy  amonst  Angas,  conquered  Knmarupa, 
defeated  Divya  and  Govardhana,  to  help  the  Palas,  and  occupied 
Vikramapura,  ousting  the  Candras  of  Gahadval  descent.  Their  son 
was  Syamala  Varman  whose  chief  queen  (agra  mahisi)  was  Malaya 
Devi,  daughter  of  the  great  warrior  Udayan.  It  is  said  that  Syamala 
Varman  brought  some  Kanyakubja  Brahmins  for  the  performance  of 
Sakuni  Yajna  who  are  known  as  Panca  gotra  Vaidikas  of  Eastern  Bengal. 
Syamala's  son  was  Bhoja.  Princes  of  jAlandhara  were  Yadavas  at 
Simhapura  =  Seng-ha-pulo  of  Yuan.  Chang.  According  to  inscription, 
12  kings  of  Varmans  used  to  rule  at  Simhapura  in  7th  century. 
Candra  Varman  and  Uma  Varman  plates  found  in  Konarli  in  Ganjam 
where  also  kings  of  Simhapur  =  Singapuran  in  Kalinga.  In  Belava 
copper  plate  of  Bhojavarmam,  a  Yadava  king  Hari  Varman  is  mentioned. 
In  Ananta  Vasudeva  temple,  there  is  an  inscription  of  about  l2th 
century  by  Bhavadeva  Bhatta,  who  claims  himself  to  be  the  minister 
of  Harivarman  Deva.  In  Nepal  two  manuscripts  have  been  found,  one 
Ashtasahasrika  Prajnaparamita  written  in  their  19th  year  of  the  reign 
of  Hari  Varman  Deva,  and  another  Vimala  Prabha,  a  commentary  on 
Kala  Cakrayana,  written  in  39th  year  of  the  reign  of  Hari  Varman  Deva. 
Candra  vamsa  of  Gahadval  origin  ruled  in  Rohitagiri  iRohits  Gad 
in  Sahabad  Dt  Behar  ;  Lalmai,  5  miles  from  Comilla,  900— lOoO; 
Arakan  (788-957).  Two  copper  plates  of  Sri  Candra  of  Harikel  Candra 
dvipa  (consisting  of  parts  of  Faridpur,  Khulna  and  Backerganj  Dist), 
grandson  of  Suvarna  Chandra  (another  grandson  Govinda  Candra)  have 
been  found.  They  were  Buddhists  and  worshipped  Bhagavati  Tara. 
inscriptions  of  Khadgas   (possibly  of  Tibatan  origin  ;  Jata   Khadga,  his 


CHOLAS  68 

Eajendra  Chola  1012-42  conquered  Srivijaya,  Kadara 
(Kedah)  and  Ma  Nakka  Varam  (the  land  of  the  naked  — 
Nicobar  Isles)  of  Polynesian  and  Malayan  origin. 


son  Deva  Khadga  and  his  son  crown  prince  Rftja  Raja  Bhatto)  have 
been  found  in  Comilla  and  Dacca  districts.  Arakan  Candra  Dynasty 
with  Wethali  as  capital  consisted  of  Dhama  Candra,  Priii  Candra  and 
Vira  Candra  of  Lalmai,  Layaha  Candra,  Purna  Candra,  Suvarna  Candra, 
Trailakya  Candra,  Sri  Candra.  destroyed  by  Knlacuri  Kama  1041-1071. 
Their  coins  are  similar  and  known  as  Patikera.  Couchant  humped  bull 
on  the  obverse  ;  the  sun  and  the  moon  with  a  garland  on  the  reverse, 
Mayanamati  Hills  =  Patiker.  near  Comilla.  is  named  after  Madanavati, 
queen  of  Manik  Candra,  mother  of  Gopi  (Govinda)  Candra,  whom  he 
induced  to  renounce  the  world  as  well  as  his  wives  Adun  <  and  Paduna 
against  his  inclination,  through  the  influence  of  her  Guru  Goraknath. 

A  Haihaya  inscription  states  that  Laksml  Kama  was  succeeded 
before  1073  by  his  son  Yasah  Kama,  begotten  on  queen  Avalla  Devi 
of  Hun  stock  -  Hunan^m  Vyam.   Ep.  In  2  p.  4. 

Na-khi  =  Naga  =  Tib.  Klu-mo  tribe  and  kingdom  is  in  SVV  China  in 
Yung-ning  NW  of  Lichiang.  Free  love  is  practised  among  the  common 
people  ;  Na-khi  speak  of  their  5  ancestral  spirit  clans.-  Nyi-Tib. 
gNyan  who  live  on  trees;  Dtu  =  Bon  G  Tod  who  dwell  on  rocks  and 
clifs  ;  S3iunda  =  Tib.  Sa  bdg  who  live  on  land  ;  Ngn-ba  in  water 
and  springs  ;  Ssu  in  streams.  Na-khi  women  have  piculiar  hair  dress. 
Dso-na-lo-chi  whose  upper  part  is  human  and  lower  part  composed  of 
the  coils  of  the  snake.  N'a-khi-sau  ggo-gyl-bhu=  Naga  chiefs 
Nagaraja.  Ssu-ndo  Naga  =  Ku  ngo  =  Dik  Pala.  Ngawla-suepa  =■ 
Nagapalas  Beside  the  regular  serpent-headed  Nagas  whose  names  are 
legions,  Naga  demons  possess  various  animal  heads  as  of  hoise,  ox.  tiger, 
yak,  water  buffalo,  fish,  elephant,  stag.  Nyissa-kho-lo  changed  himself 
into  a  handsome  youngman  and  visited  the  wife  of  Ddo-ssaw-ngo-tu 
during  later's  absence  and  enticed  hf  r  to  sexual  embrace.  Ni-iossa  = 
o-ma-ha  is  the  Nakhi  god  of  wealth.  The  Na  khi  Naga  Cult  and  Related 
Ceremonies  by  J  F  Rock,  Serie  Oriental  Roma  1952. 

Desa  =  country  ;  pra-desa  ■=  province  ;  mandala- administrative  unit 
of  a  province  ;  bhukti  =  a  division  of  a  mandala  ;  visaya  =  district.  Bhogica, 
uparika  =  governor  ;  mandalika  =  chief  of  a  circlets  imanta  ;  visaspati 
adhikarana  =  chief  of  visaya  ;  a  yutaka  =  executive  officer;  pu3ta-pilas  = 
keepers  of  records  ;  prathama  kulika-*  chief  of  guilds  ;  gramani  =  mayor  of 
a  village  ;  kulapati,  pathaka,  puraga,  purara- mayor  of  a  pura  =  big  town, 
nagara  sreshthi,  president  of  the  local  town  chamber  of  commerce; 
nagara  raksaka  =  police  chief  of  a  town;  anikastha  =  veternary  surgeon  ; 
duta  =- ambassador  ;  dutaka  =  consul  ;  nagarin  =  mayor  of  a  nagara,  a 
small  town;  adhyaksha- manager  ;  samkhaka  =  accountant  ;  sthinika  = 
thana  official  ;  sita  =  communal  land  ;  bhiga  =  ^  agricultural  produce 
rent;  kara=»levy  on  orchard  produce;  vivita-on  cattle  pastures; 
vartani  =  road  cess  ;  anugraha  =  partial  remission  of  taxes  ;  parihsra- 
complete  remission  of  taxes;  pattana  =  port  town;  sulk  idhaya  =  supdt 
of  customs  ;  mud:adhaya  =  supt  of  passport  ;  maha  matra-  high  official. 


SCRIPT 

In  Sanskrit  there  are  52  phonetic  alphabets  :  9  simple' 
vowels  as  a,  a,  i,  i,  u.  u,  r,  r .  i  ;  i  diphthongs  e,  o  ai.  au  ; 
7  gutturals  k,  kh,  g,  gh,  ri,  a,  a;  11  palatals  c,  ch,  j,  jh  (jh 
only  once  in  Rv  and  not  in  Av),  n,  y,  s,  i  i,  e,  ai  ;  ll  cere- 
brals or  Unguals  t,  th.  d,  jh,  1,  th.  n.  r.  r  j  9  dentals  t,  th, 
d,  dh,  n,  1,  s,  1,  1  ;  9  labials  p,  ph,  b,  bh,  m,  v.  u,  u,  o,  au  • 
4  semi-vowels  y  (palatal),  r  (cerebraZ),  1  i dental),  v  (labial)  •. 
3  sibilants  s  (palatal),  s  (cerebral),  s  (dental)  ;  1  aspiration 
h  ;  1  nasal  m  anusvara.  Gutturals  are  sounded  with  the 
back  part  of  the  tongue  raised  as  high  as  possible  to  the 
back  palate.  Palatals  are  pronounced  with  the  body 
of  the  tongue  raised  to  the  palate.  Cerebrals  are  pronounced 
with  the  tip  of  the  tongue  placed  against  the  roof  of  the 
mouth  and  jerk  down  sharply  to  the  horizontal  position  ; 
the  lips  are  slightly  drawn  back  and  teeth  are  exposed. 
Dentals  are  pronounced  with  the  teeth  of  the  tongue  which 
are  set  slightly  apart ;  lips  are  pulled  back  to  expose  the  teeth, 
a  is  inherent  in  Brahmi  lipi  consonants  as  in  Aramaic 
aleph  predominates.  The  fully  developed  Br  lipi  is  an  out- 
come of  the  remarkable  philological  and  phonological  precision, 
an  exact  reflex  of  the  pronunciation,  surpassing  all  ancient,^ 
even  modern  scripts. 

But  the  origin  of  Br  lipi  is  not  yet  definetely  known. 
Some  ascribe  it  to  about  bOO  Mohenjodaro  mixed  syllabic 
ideographic  signs  ;  many  to  Aramaic  •  and  a  few  others  to 
both  sources  and  Cretan.  M  signs  are  similar  to  Khatti  hierogly- 
phics, being  originally  a  picture  writing,  having  350  ideographic, 
phonetic,  syllabic  and  even  single  sound  signs  of  which  6 3  are 
phonetic. 

Out  of  a  swarm  of  bees,  one-fifth  settled  on  a  blossom  of  Kadamba  ; 
one-third  on  a  fiower  of  Silidhri  ;  three  times  the  difference  of  these 
numbers  fiew  to  the  bloom  of  a  Culaya  ;  one  bee  which  remained 
hovered  and  flew  about  in  the  air,  allowed  at  the  same  moment  by  the 
pleasing  fragrance  of  a  jasmin.  Tell  me,  charming  woman,  the  number 
of  bees.  Lilavati,  3,  54.  Ans.  15  bees.  In  a  certain  lake  swarming, 
with  ruddy  geese  ard  cranes,  the  tip  of  a  bud  of  lotus  was  seen  a  span 
above  the  surface  of  the  water.  Forced  by  the  wind,  it  gradually 
advanced  and  was  submerged  at  the  distance  of  two  cubits.  Compute 
quickly,  o  mathematician,  the  depth  of  the  water.  Lilavati  6,  l53. 
Ans.  3f  cubits  of  depth. 

Prakrita  is  the  natural  popular  dialect  of  the  people.  Satnsknta  is- 
the  polished  refined  speech  of  the  intellectual  aristocrats —priest,  poet, 
minister,   judge,  courtier  and  the  princes. 


SCRIPT  66 

Aleph  as  an  ox  head  is  ropresented  in  18-iO  B.  C.  E-^ypt 
and  Phoenicia  in  1200  B.  C.  ;  it  became  Gh  alpha,  L.  A  ; 
it  has  been  found  in  HM  seals,  Br  a.  Beth  of  E  Ph  of  1200  B.C. 
is  the  plan  of  a  house  with  an  open  doorway  ;  it  became  Gk 
beta,  L.  B,  Br  h  ;  also  observed  in  M  seal  412.  E,  Sinai  ( 18.*)0), 
Ph  {1200\  representing  a  door  became  Gk  delta  (oUU  B  C.)  ; 
it  is  represented  in  H  M  seal  552;  on  Assyrian  weight  of 
circeter  of  HOO  B.  C.  ;  as  d  twice  in  Asoka  edicts  and  as  dh 
in  Bhattipralu  and  Nanaghat  inscriptions.  Bow  and  arrow 
(Mohenjodaro  61)  :  Skt.  dhenuka,  became  5r.  dh.  In  Sinai  of 
1850,  He  has  a  figure  of  a  warrior  with  extended  hands  ;  it 
has  become  Gk  epsilon,  L.  E  j  found  in  HM  seal  (plate  1U6, 
seal  I)  has  become  Br  h  in  Asoka  edicts.  Vaw="ankh, 
symbolizing  vulva  with  phallus,  Waw  of  the  Mesa  and  Teima 
inscriptions-,  found  in  weights  as  the  emblem  of  Ishtar,  HM 
seal  68,  became  digamma,  later  phi,  F,  vow,  Y,  Br  V,  having 
the     phonetic     value     of     W  ;    possibly   the     Sumerian    female 

Aram  ^Gen.  ch  10)  =  Akkadian.  A-ra-am  =  Aramaeans  -  Aramic.  Amarna 
Tablets  of  12th  century  B.  C  mention  Akhlame  (federation)  Armay.  In 
l2th  century  B.C.  Aramaeans  after  the  decline  of  the  Hittite  Assyrian  and 
Minoan  powers,  established  pretty  kingdoms  in  VV.  Syria  amonst  the  Suri 
Mitannis  (Sauro-Matae,  N  and  S.  Mesopotamia,  especially  at  Damascus 
(Aram  Dammeahoq  Aram  Naharan  .  Assyrians  conquered  Aramaeans, 
and  Damascus  fell  in  the  hand  of  the  victors  in  732  B.  C  With  the 
captivity  of  Aramaeans,  the  captives  spread  it  throughout  the  Assyrian- 
Empire.  Under  the  Achaemenians  it  became  one  of  their  official 
languages,  and  the  principal  speech  of  traders  from  Egypt,  .Asia  Minor 
to  N.  VV.  India.  It  is  still  spoken  in  some  villages,  surrounding 
Damascus.  It  was  the  vernacular  of  Israel,  of  Jesus  Christ,  Apostles,  and 
possibility  of  the  Gospels. 

A  scripts  are  a  main  branch  of  the  Cannanites.  The  earliest  inscription 
is  by  the  king  of  Damascus  in  Tell  Halos  of  abont  850  B.  C.  A 
became  the  most  important  and  widespread  script  of  the  whole  of 
Near  East  and  the  official  and  diplomatic  script  of  the  western  provin- 
ces and  N.  VV.  India  of  the  Achaemenians.  An  inscription  has  been 
found  at  Taxila  of  third  century  B.  C.  Kharosti  of  IndoScythians 
developed  out  of  A  in  5th  century  B.  C.  in  N  India.  Br  had  some 
influence  on  K/i  in  regard  to  the  vocalization  of  script,  vowels  bring 
indicated  by  small  circles,  dashes  and  strokes  and  the  addition  of 
sounds  of  bh,  gh.  and  dh,  which  do  not  exist  in  A.  Kharosti  is  either 
from  Aramic  word  Kharostha  or  from  from  Indo-Scythic  clan  Kharaost. 
KA  inscription  of  Asokas  edicts  of  251  B.  C,  has  been  incised  on  a  rock 
in  Shahbaazgari  on  the  Indo-Afghan  border,  JCA  has  been  used  on 
Indo-Greek  and  Indo-Scythian  coins  between  175  B.  C,  and  150  A.  D. 
In  Niya,  Lou-Ian  in  Turkestan  have  been  found  many  documents  and 
Buddhistic  manuscripts  written  in  Indian  ink  on  wood,  skin  and  paper  in 
K/i  between  2nd.,  3rd.  A.D.  K/i  is  a  commercial  calligraphic  script  like 
A  written  from  right  to  left  ;  and  majority  of  signs  have  similar  phone- 
tic value.  In  Pehlavi  (  Parthava  in  Darius  inscription  =  G.k.  Parthaioi 
=  Lat.  (Parthi  ),  Tochari  (Tukhara  =  Thakura) -Kucha   (  =  Ki-utsa-Kuci 

6 


66  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

pubic  triange  with  a  slit  inside,  a  name  for  vulva  as  well  as 
for  a  woman,  became  what  is  called  in  Bengali  pet  kata  ^  (va). 
Ph  gamal,  the  figure  of  camel  of  1200  B.  C.  which  under 
Arabic  influence  became  known  as  Heh  gimel,  formed  Gh 
gamma  ;  it  is  found  both  in  A  and  Kh  ;  it  became  Br  g. 
From  Ph  and  Sabaean  Kheth  (fence),  observed  in  M  seal  552. 
originated  Br  gh  Ph  Zain  became  Gh  Zeta,  Pehlavi  and 
Br  J.  E  and  Ph  yod  =  ilf  hasta  in  the  shape  of  a  hand  became 
Gk  iota,  L.J,  Br  i.  u.  M  parralel  lines  no  75«Skt  Yamaka 
became  Br  Y.  E  and  Ph  Kaph  in  the  shape  of  the  palm  of 
the  hand,  observed  also  in  H  M  inscriptions,  became  Gk 
Kappa  L.  K  and  Br  K  ;  its  connection  with  A  dagger  Kaph 
is   also   possible.     Ph   Qoph,     meaning     monkey,     became   Gk. 

(Pur.   Kauseya - Uigurian    Kusan   lill)  =  Yen-ki  =  Agni.    and    their   allied 
Sogds  =  Sogdi  (Ir.  Sugudu  -  Pur.  Saktri),  offshoots  of  A,  aleph  becomes  a  ; 
w  as  V  ;    y  as  consonant  y  or  w    vowel ;    both  letters  /  and  r  could   denote 
eirher    1    or   r  ;  /  represented   either  /   or  /" ;  /   for  w  ;  /    for   d,    dh 
or  ,th  ;  g   for   gh  ;    final   consonants    were   followed   by    w   after   b,    p,  t, 
ch,     k,    w,     and     J.     Like     all   Semitic     scripts    A    did    not     contain 
vowel     sounds.      The     Greek     introduced     vowels    in     their    script    on 
Phoenician  base.     In    Arabia  they   simply   write  JCtd  for   keta3  ;     it   may 
be  read  as  Kitab,  or  Kutip      In  Hindi  without  voz^el  bb   aj  tnr  gy  it  may 
be   read   as   baba,   bibi   or   babu  aj   mar   giya   or   Ajmir   giya  ;    thus  the 
Moghuls  wrote  lerters  which  might   be   read    as  any   one    pleases.     Early 
Achaemenian   cuneiform   quasi    alphabet   based   on    neo-Babylonian,    has 
41   symbols   of  which   4   were   ideograms   for   ksayathiya   (king),   bhumi 
{  country),   dahyu    (province)     and     Ahura    Mazda,   3     vowels   a,    i,  u  ; 
13  consonants    kh,   ch,  th,  p,  b,  f.  y,  1,  s,  z,  sh,  thr,  h,   followed   either  by 
short  a  or  long  a  ;    that    13   symbols   for  consonants   k,  g,  t,  n,  r.    Hittite 
=  Hatti  =     Khatti     hieroglyphic    cursive   syllabary   signs   number   about 
220-419   of   10-6-th   century    B.   C.   in    Carchemish.     The   inscriptions 
begin   at   the   top   right   hand    side.     The   direction   is   generally    bowi- 
i ro/>/ie do n—alternzung   in   direction   wirh   successive  rows  like  oxen  plow- 
ing a   field.    Signs  :     ox,     ox     head,    calf,     calf's     head,     double   axe, 
vase,      warrior,      goat,     king,      country,      river,     barbed      arrow,     bow 
with     barbed     arrow,     solar     disk,     eye,     elliptic    vulva,     vulva     with 
phallus   (ankh).     Indus   valley    scripts  :  Warrior,   scorpion,    flying    bird, 
bow,  mouth,  hand,  vase,    solar   disk,    baskets,    fish,  frog,  trees,  vulva  with 
phallus   (trisula),    river,   serpent,   barbed    arrow,    arrow    with    bow.     An 
inscription  round  the  Piprahwa   steatite   relic   vase   just    below  the  lid  in 
Pftli   in   Br  ancient  characters   with  the  meaning  :     "This  shrine  for  the 
ashes   of   Buddha,    the   exalted   one,    is   the   pious   work   of  the  Sakiyas 
(Skiynm).   his   brothers  associated   with   their   sisters,    and  their  children 
and   their   wives'.    I  y  (a)  m  s  (a)  HI  (a)  n  (i)  dh  (a)  n  (e)  B  (u)  dh  (a)  s 
(a)   bh  (a)  g  (a)  va  (a)  t  (e).     The  only  vowels   used   are   1    and  u  and  in 
one  doubtful   case    either  e    or   o.     An   Asokan    inscription    found   at 
Yerraguti   has  8   of  its   23   lines,   namely  2,  4,  6,  9,  11,  14,  23,  incised 
from  right  to  left  like   Gk  boustrophedon.     A   coin   has  been  found  at 
Eron  in  Saugar  with  an   inscription   from  right   to  left  of  3rd  century 
B.  C.     Rano  Dhamapalasa  =  Rani  Dharmapala. 


SCRIPT  67 

•Chi,  Br  Kh,  similar  to  Kh  prototype.  Ph  lamed  in  the  form 
of  fishhook  became  Gk  lambda,  L.  L.  Br  I,  similar  Kh  1.  E 
and  Ph  mem  in  zigzag  lines  to  represent  water  in  motion 
M  seal  no  459  became  Gk  mu,  L.  3/.  Br  m  ;  it  is  also  likely 
that  M  mayura  symbol  No.  59  became  Br  m.  E  and  Ph  nun, 
a  wrigging  serpent  became  Gk  nu,  L.  N  2?r  n  ;  a  curling 
snake  is  also  found  M  seals  258  and  102.  E  and  Ph  ayin  in 
the  form  of  an  eye  became  rounded  into  Gk  Oraicron,  L.  O 
Br  0  ;   an  eliptic   eye  is   found  in   M  seal    188.     Ph   pe   and    M 

Hebrew  alphabets  of  sixth  century  B.C.  number  22,  derived  from 
Phoenicians  who  were  perhaps  known  in  Rv  as  Pani  =  L.  Poeni  : 
aleph  (  ox  ),  beth  (  house  ),  daleth  (  door  ),  waw  (  hook  ),  nun  (  fish  ),  yod 
(  hand  ),  kaph  (  palm  of  hand  ),  Phoenician  gamal  coming  under  Arabic 
influence  as  ginel  (  camel  ),  zayin,  kheth  (  fence  ),  teth,  yod,  lamed, 
mem,  nun,  samekh,  ayin,  pe,  sade,  gaph,  resh,  shin,  taw.  These  22  north 
Semitic  letters  expressing  consonants  correspond  roughly  to  their 
descendant  Greek  22  alphabets  Arabic  :  alif  (  '  ),  ba  (  b  ),  ta  (  t  ),  tha 
(  th  ),  jim  (  g  for  jamal  =  camel  ),  ha  (  h  ),  kha  (  kh  ),  dal  (d),  dhal  (  dh  ), 
ra  (  r  ),  za  (  z  ),  sin  (  s  ),  kaf  (  k  ),  lam  (  1  ),  min  (  m  ),  nun  (  n  ).  ha  (  h  ), 
waw  (  w  ),  ya  (  y )  ;  ta.  kha,  dhal,  dad,  ghaim  are  later  additions. 
Arabic  alphabet  developed  at  the  end  ot  4th  and  during  5th  century 
A.D.  out  of  Nabataean.  The  earliest  Arabic  inscriptions  extant  are 
trilingual — Greek,  Syriac  and  Arabic.  A  Nabataean  inscription  found 
at  En-nemsruh  south  of  Damascus,  dated  328  A.D.  is  couched  in  Arabic 
speech.  The  earliest-dated  inscription  of  S  Semitic  Sabaean  is  connected 
with  the  invasion  of  Egypt  by  Cambyses  in  525  B.C.  The  earliest  non- 
dated  probably  of  Sth  century  B.C.  There  are  28  letters.  The  phonetic 
value  of  g,  teth,  1,  n,  sh,  q  is  the  same  in  both  N  and  S   Semitic. 

Thy  sound  a  inherent  in  all  consonants  of  the  Brahmi  and  Brahmi 
derivative  scripts  is  due  to  the  influence  of  Aramaic  in  which  the  final 
aleph  predominated.  The  Polynesians  have  vowel  sounds  at  the  ends 
of  their  words  to  soften  them.  But  vocalization  in  Brahmi  is  defective. 
There  is  no  compound  vocalisation  in  Sanskrit  as  in  Greek,  Latin,  French 
and  German  eu,  oe,  though  they  are  found  in  Pali  :  dviguna  (  twice  )•= 
Pali  deuna  ;  rodana  (■=  weep  )  =  raoua  ;  bhagini  (  sister  )  =  bain  ;  pipSsn 
(  thirst  )  =  piyasa  ;  bhrata  (  brother  )  =  Pftli  bhai.  Tone  of  Mongolian 
languages  has  been  borrowed  in  Sanskrit  as  a,  1,  u,  r.  There  is  sharp 
accent  (  oxytone  )  in  the  last  syllable  of  Gk.  elision  and  preposition. 
Gk.  anti  -  Skt.  ati  (  beyond  )  ;  Gk.  anu  -  Skt  anu  (  after  )  ;  Gk.  apo  -  api 
(  on  )  ;  Gk.  epi  =  ap  (  off  )  ;  Gk.  upo  =  Skt.  upa  (  below  ).  To  utter  a 
series  of  consonants,  each  of  which  requires  a  separate  contact,  without 
any  vowel  to  intervene,  is  an  effort  of  the  organs  of  speech  which  can 
only  be  accomplished  when  the  organs  are  vigorons  and  strong.  Each 
word  of  the  Chinese  language  generally  has  4  tones  which  cause  the 
-same  word  to  mean  totally  different  things.  The  tones  of  the  word  may 
be  defined  as  modulations  of  the  voice  by  means  of  which  different 
inflections  are  implanted  to  the  same  sound.  Skt.  .^^ra  (  head  )  ;  sUa  (  boa  ) 
constrictor.;  slra-Fr.  charrue,  plough  share;  dina=»day;  dina=isad, 
poor .;  suta  «  son,  sQta  -  charioteer.  Panini  (  1,  2.  31  )  says  that  a  vowel 
pronounced   at   a   high   pitch   (not  stress)  is  called  uditta- Greek   and 


68  THE  LITERAEY  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT   INDIA 

in  the  shape  of  mouth  has  become  Gh  p,  L.  P,  Br  P  in 
Mansera  Asoka  inscription,  Ph  resh  in  the  shape  of  human 
head  has  become  Gh  rho,  L.  R,  Kh  and  Br  r.  Ph  taw  as 
a  sign  post,  became  Gh  tau,  L,  T,  A  taw,  Br  t,  Bh  theth  in 
the  shape  of  a  woolen  ball  has  become  Br  th,  E  and  Bh 
Samech  in  the  shape  of  a  fish  has  become  Gh  Sigma,  L.  '6, 
and  Br  S  ;  fish  signs  are  also  found  in  M  seals  39o  and 
640.  Bh  sade  in  the  shape,  of  nose  has  become  Br  b  •  Bh  Shin  in 
the  shape  of  a  tooth  has  become  Br  Sh. 

Latin  oxys  and  acutus  ;  at  a  low  pitch  anudatta  =  barytones,  gravis,  their 
combination,  svarita,  (  intoned  )  sama-ahara- perispomenos,  circumflexus, 
dvi-yama  =  Gk  dvi-tonos  ;  un-nica  (  high-low  )  =  Gk  meson  (  middle  tone  ). 
"The  high  tone  is  affected  by  tension,  hardness  and  constriction  of 
the  glottis  -,  the  low  tone  is  affected  by  laxness,  softness  and  widening 
of  the  glottis."  Matra  =  meter.  A  short  vowel  =  1  matra  ;  a  long  vowei  = 
2  matras  ;  2,  pint o  (  only  used  twice  )  in  Rv  =  3  matras  ;  a  consonant  =  |- 
matra.  A  vowel  having  the  length  of  a  is  short  ;  its  value  is  1  matra. 
"A  matra  is  equivalent  to  the  cry  of  the  blue-jay,  2  matras  of  that  of  the 
crow,  3  matras  to  that  of  peacock,  \  matra  of  the  consonants  to  that  of 
the  mongoose. 

If  the   tongue   tip   is   applied    to   the   centre   of  the  hard  palate,  the 
resulting   soundings   are  harsh  like  r  ;  Skt  guda  (anus)  =  Hind  gar.     Con- 
tacting a    little   lower   down,    more  towards  the   front,  it  produces  a  less 
harsh   sound.     At   the    edge   of   the   teeth   the   sound  is  soft  and  smooth. 
Teutons  have  harsh  gutteral  sounds.     In  expressing  I  and  d  Teutons   touch 
with   their   tongue   the   fleshy   part    or   the   gum  of  the  palate,  just  above 
the  teeth.     The   French   and   Italians   make   the  contact  lower  down  just, 
where   the   teeth   issue   from   the   gum,    thus   producing  a  softer  melody. 
The  Hindus   make   the   contact   low   down,   on   the  teeth,  almost  at  their 
edge,   thus   producing   a   soft   sound.     Being   the  result  of  impact  on  the 
teeth,    it    is   dental.     Teutons    have  no  dental.     Italians  have  semidenfal. 
In   the   warm   tropical   climate    there  is  a  certain  amount  of  laxity  which 
affects'  articulation,   requering  less   exertion   on    the   part  of  the  speaker- 
The   muscles   of  the   tongue    having   become   flaccid,    tongue   long    and 
soft,  it  seeks  naturally   the   lowest    and    easiest  place  for  utterance.     Teut. 
dugdor  =  Skt.  duhita   (daughter),  matar  =  mata.     Lingual  1  is  changed  into 
r.     Skt    srnoti,  srunoti  =  Zd  surunaoiti  =  Pali   sunoti=  Beng.  sunai.  Kala 
(black)  =  in   Sindi   Kara  ;  Kula   (family)  =  Kur  ;  Jala     (water)  =  Jaru.     In 
Bihar     l  =  r;     kala  =  karia;      thali  =  tharia ;      keia  =  kera;      phal  =  phar 
(plowshare).     In   Bengal   l  =  n-,  lena,    laite  =  nayite  ;    lun  =  nun;  v-u; 
jiva  =  jiu  ;    devara  =  deyar  ;     deva  =  deo  ;    m  =  n-,    grama  =  gaon;   s  =  h; 
sasura  =  hahur  ;  pausa  =  poh-,  kha  =  h;    mukha  =  muh;    likha  =  liha  ;  tha 
=  h  ;    gatha-gaha  ;    dha  =  h  ;    dadhi  =  dahi  ;  vadhu  =  vahu  ;  godhuma  = 
gohu.     Compound   consonants     and    consonant     combination    of     Indo- 
Aryan    and  Semitic   Aramaic   groups  are  softened  ;    dugda  =  dud  ;   kubja 
kujja  ;  bhakta  =  bhata  ;     mukta  =  moti;     sarsapa  =  sarisa  ;    sarpa  =  sap  ; 
vatsa  =  baca     (son).      In     euphony     (samasa),     hiatus    is    avoided    and. 
united  consonants  and  contacts  of  final   with  inititial  consonants   are 
softened. 


scRirr  69 

These  Ural  Altaic  people  are  called  Bumerians,  Suto,  and 
iihey  called  the  country  Burner  (Pur.  Sumeru  ;  Meru  — 
Merv).  They  were  in  their  turn  conquered  by  tall  dolicho- 
cephalic Sargon  Semities  (Bib.  Shem=Pur.  Soma)  j  some  of 
the  previous  Brown  and  Finno  Uffrians  naij^'rated  to  India  by 
Baluchistan  which  was  less  arid  then  as  well  as  by  the  sea. 
The  Dravidian  languages  are  agglutinating  with  monosyllabic 
root  on  which  are  glued  on  suffixes  and  no  prefixes  like  that  of 
Turks-=Chin.  Tur- Kut- Prak.  Turukka- Skt.  Turuksha.  Tun- 
cruse  (Tunga),  Magyar  (Magyar  of  Nepal)  Finns,  Nogai  iNagara  — 
Nayara— Newer,  as  Nayanik'i  —  Naganika  — Naya  maiden),  Tatars 
( Tittiri),  Soyot  =  Sumerian  Suto  =>  Satvata  -  Si'ita  -  Kvati  =  Sata  - 
Vahana),  Ugris  =  Uigurs  (Ugra- Senas  =  Ugra     Ayudha   Brahma- 

Dravidian  is  a  mixed  Ugro-Tartar.  Hamitic,  Mon-khmer,  Indonesian. 

AustroAsiatic  and  Kolarian  languages  The  earthenware  figurines  of 
women  found  in  Salem  Dt.  show  their  hair  in  short  ringlets  all  round  the 
head,  wearing  high  cornbs  on  the  top.  Aditchallun  skull  is  hardly  distin- 
guishable from  early  Egyptian  type,  and  which  is  still  found  among  the 
kadars  and  Uralis.  At  Badari,  the  prehistoric  Egyptians  used  to  put 
on  ivory  combs.  The  head  hair  wooly  ringlets  are  positive  negroid 
traits.  Hamitic  Tumal  and  Shangallas  have  become  Tamils  -  Damils, 
Sanskritized  into  Dravidas.  and  Simhalas  =  Ceylonese  who  still  put  on  a 
comb  on  their  head-hair.  These  brown  hypsi-dolichocephals  with  medium 
nose,  vertical  bulging  occipital  elongated  oval  face,  dome-shaped  forehead, 
•prominent  cheekbones,  weak  jaw  and  chin,  scanty  beard,  long  legs  and 
arms,  thin  calf,  flat  large  feet,  bull-like  neck,  thick  lips,  broad  nose,  curly 
hair,  occupied  Babylonia.  In  Europe  these  negroid  Hamites  were  known  as 
Aurignacians,  noted  for  their  polychrome  cave  paintings,  dances  and  music, 
mollusks  for  neeklaces  and  the  use  of  bow  and  arrow  which  brought  the 
doom  of  Neanderthalers  =  Australoids.  .A  bronze  nude  danseuse  statuette 
with  long  arms  and  legs  covered  with  anklets  and  armlets  with  dishevelled 
curly  hair  found  at  .Mohenjodaro,  is  of  this  Hamitic  type.  A  palae-Alpine 
Finno-Ugrian  Ural-Altaic  stock,  probably  Scyths.  from  the  slope  of  Altai 
Mts  and  the  river  basin  of  Irtysh,  passing  Azerbiizan  ami  Trans-Caucasia 
came  with  bronze  and  conquered  the  Brown  Race  Thou  didst  deliver 
powerful  Peprum  (VVapare?)  and  Mrigaya  (Maga)  to  Rijisvana  of 
Vidathin  I'Bharadrajas).  Thou  didst  destroy  five  hundred,  may  be  one 
thousand,  blackies  (krishna)  and  tear  down  their  settlements  as  age 
consumes  a  garment  Rv  4.16-13.  Rv.  8.96.13,15  viso  adev^r  krishno 
=  godless  chiefs  of  the  blackies  ;  Rv.  l.lOl.t  krisnagarbha  -  the  wombs  of 
the  pregnant  women  of  the  blackies— Piprus  (Wapare)  were  ripped  open. 

Cow's  ears  marked  with  S  -  ashta  karnayah  Rv.  x.  62-7.  By  staking 
on  the  gambling  dice  marked  with  one-eka-I  alienated  my  wife 
Rv.  X.  34.  2. 

Tamil,   the     richest     and   oldest   of    the    Dravidian    languages,    the 

others   being  Telugu.   Canarese,    Malayalam,    Tulu.  is  rich  in  vowels -^12, 

but   poor  in  consonants  only    18  ;  and  the  vowejconsonants  18  x  12  =  216. 

Simple   short  vowels,  a,  i,  u,    e,  o  ^  long  vowels,  a,   \.  fi.  e,  o  ;  diphthongs 

•-ai,    au.   Guttaral   k,   voiced  n;    palatal    c  =  ri-.    cerebral   n;   dental    t, 


70  THE  LITERAET  HISTOBY  OF  ANOIBNI  INDIA 

dattas),     Andkhui  ==»  Andhakas,    Votyaks     (Vakatakas).      Sata  — 
Vahanas   consisted  not   only  of    Svafcis.   Andhakas,   and  Abhiras'; 
(Avars),    but   also   of    Sesa-nagas     (Sses),   as   their    first   ruler's 
name    Sisuka  indicates,   known   as  Andhras.     They    ware   more- 
or     less,     however    Scythianized.     Oval     faced,    straight-haired' 
large-eyed    Vakataka  dancing   and  singing   healthy   girls'  statues 
have   been  found   at    Manaar   of  4-8th   centry   A.     D.     Gotomi 
Bala-Siri  in  in   her   Nasik  inscription   boasts    that    she   crushed 
down    the   pride   and  conceit   of  the    Kshatriyas,   destroyed  the 
Sakas     (Sagaras),     Yavanas,   Pahlavas  ;     who     rooted     out  the- 
Khkharata        (Khshathrita  =  Phraortes      who      ruled      Media 
675-653     B.   C.)   family,    restored   the  glory   of    the     Sata  ~ 
Vahana     race.      She      established    the     Sata-Vahana     era     at 
78  A.  D.   Risabha   Datta     (Usava    Data),     son     of   Dmika   and 
son-in-law   of   Ksharata     king     Kehatrapa     (Khshathra  -  Pavan^ 
—  protector   of  the   land;    Prakrit     Khatapa  =  Chatrapa  —  Chatra 
-pati)    Nahapana,   son  of    Ghsamotilla,   marrying  his    daughter^ 


n  ;    alveolal  t,    n  ;     labial  p,    m.    Semi-vowels  ;    palatal  y  ;     cerebral   r, 
1;   lahes-dental   &;  cerebral    r,  I.     Thus   Tamil  being  poor  in  consonants,, 
so   as  an  example  ^  does   the    duty   kh  ;  g,   gh,  sometimes    of  hi   eh  and. 
s.     Thus   Skt     rajan    has   become     T     arsen  ;    gaja  -  kacam  ;     ganga  = 
kankai  ;     dharani  =  tarani  j      dirgham  =  tirkham  ;     japa  =  cepam  -,    rupa  = 
uruvara  ;     rishi  =  irudi  ;     ghata  =  cati,     Beng     ghada,     Mar.   jhari-Pers 
jarah^Span.     jarrah  =  Eng   jar      The    Dravidian   languages   are   rich   in. 
cerebral    letters   which    are   not  found    in    any     Indo-European   language, 
except  Sanskrit.    So   it  seems  that  the  Sanskrit    borrowed    it  from  the- 
Dravidian. 

The     following    Sanskrit   words   may   be   of  Dravidian   origin  :    anu.- 
(  particle  ),  arani  {  forest  ),   katuka   (  sharp  ),    kapi    (  monkey  ),    karmara 
(  smith  ),  kala  (  arts  ),  kala  (  time  ).   kitara    (  question    ),    kuta  (cottage  ), 
kenaru  (  withered  arm  ),  kunda  (  hole  ),  gana  (  band  ),  nana  (  many  ),  pila- 
(  blue  ),    nihara   (  cloud  ),     puskara     (  lotus  ),     puspa    (  flower  ),    pujana* 
(  worship  ),  phala  (  fruit  ),  bila  (  hole  ),   bija  (  seed  ),    mayura  (  peacock  ),. 
ratri  (  night  ),  rupa  {  form  ),  sayan  (  evening  ),  valgu  (  handsome  ),    adar  = 
atavi    (  tree  ),   alarka   (  a   kind  of  flower  ),    kambala    (  blanket  \    kulala 
(  potter  ),  kharga  (  rhino  ),  tandula  (  rice  ),  tila  (  sesame  ),  phana  (  froth  ), 
motaci   (locust),    kunda   (hole),    kura  =  kurkura     (dog),     kei  =  keyura? 
(bracelet    j,   kuyila  =  kakila ;    pid  =  pit,    pitaka     (basket);     petti  =  peta. 
(box);   palam  =  phala   (fruit),     markata     (monkey);    Tam.   muttu  = 
Prakrit  mutta  =  mukta  (  pearl  ). 

Pictographic     and     hieroglyphic     inscriptions     on   the     cliffs   of  nw 
spurs   of  Sultan- VVizdag   Mts   of  Iranian    KLhwarizm  =  Kangha  =  Kang- 
kiu     of  the   Chinese  =  Zd  Airyan   vejo     are   associated,    with    the  seals- 
found   at  Mohan jodaro   and   with  the  Hittite   and      early   Elamite   hiero-- 
glyphic   writings.     Caesar  in  Gaul    of   1st   century  B.  C.     "It    is   against 
the   principles   of  the     Druids     to   commit   the     doctrines   to  writing  ; 
during   their   novitiate   it   is   said   that  the   learn   by   heart   innumerable- 
verses  -  oral   transmission  as  the    Vedas  and  Smritis   in    Ancient  India. 
The    Australian    pronouns    of  the    second   person    and    those    of  the- 


SCRIPT  71 

Daksha  Mitra,  had  control  over  Prabhasa,  Bharukaccha, 
Govardhana  (in  Nasik  Dt)  Soparuga  (Supara  near  Baasein)  : 
their  son  Mitra  Devanaka  (Naga)  ordered  the  repairs  of 
Sudarsana  Lake  made  by  Vaisya  Pusya  Gupta,  the  provincial 
governor  of  the  Maurya  king  Gandra  Gupta,  and  adorned 
with  conduits  for  Asoka.  the  Maurya,  by  the  Yavana  ruler 
Tashaspha,  while  governing  (Rudra  Daman's  Girnar  Inscr. 
Rudra-dama  (O Persian  as  Spalaga-dama  ;  also  Svami  Jiva 
Daman)  repaired  the  broken  dam  by  Minister  8uvi  Saka. 
the  son  of  Kulaipa,  a  Pahlava,  who  had  been  appointed  by 
the  king  in  this  government  to  rule  the  whole  of  Anarta 
and  Surastra.  In  Abhira  lavara  Sena's  Nasik  Inscription, 
1000  and  500  Karaapanas  are  invested  in  trade  guilds  at 
Govardhana  for  providing  medicine  for  the  sick  among  the 
monks  ;  I  am  an  Abhira  (Avar),  son  of  Siva  Datta  and 
Madhari  (among  the  Satavahans  Madhari  putasa)  by  Vishnu 
Datta  the  Sakhani.  mother  of  Ganapaka  Visvavarma,  wife 
of  Ganapaka  Rebhila,  daughter  of  Agni  Varma,  the  Saka. 
Devi   Nayaaikaya   (Naganika.   daughter   of  Sadakana  Maharathi 

Dravidian  languages  resemble  distinctly  and  are  aparent  not  only  in 
suffixes  but  in  pronominal  base  itself.  The  inscription  of  Darius  in 
Turanian  Scythic  Medic  language  has  close  similarity  with  the 
Dravidian  in  the  idioms. 

Old  Tamil  and  the  agglutinative  Astro-Asian,  Malaysian  Indo- 
nesian and  Gond  languages  are  affiliated  to  each  other.  Austro- 
Asiatic /(?4!.  M3.\a.y  lok,  Khasi  t-loK  Santal  Ioc,Wq  loc,  Mundari  loc=^ 
Old  Tamil  alk- ul  =  genital  organ.  In  modern  Tamil  alk-ul  means 
armpit  and  to  tickle.  Agglutinative  is  formed  into  a  single  constituted 
word  from  various  elements,  each  with  a  fixed  connotation,  while  pre- 
serving its  individuality,  mechanically  added  to  the  complex.  Indo- 
European  is  inflectional  synthetic  amalgum  where  the  component  parts 
cannot  be  separated  from  each  other.  In  the  inflectional  the  elements 
of  composed  words  have  become  so  amalgamated  with  each  other  that 
apart  from  an  historical  analysis  they  can  no  longer  be  separated  from 
the  complex  as  a  whole,  used  as  a  word,  African  tongues  are  aggluti- 
native and  alliteral.  Most  of  them  possess  gutturals  and  a  very  hard 
aspirates  and  a  number  of  nasal  consonants  as  ng,  nk,  ne,  mb,  mg. 

Sanskritized  Tamil:  Katlila  =  khatva  (cot-khftt)-.  nira  (water); 
pandu  (old  and  wisej  =  pandita  learned);  Tel  pattanam  =•  pattana 
(port);  Tel.  nagaru  (building)  =  nagara  itown)  ..  Tel.  dudi  (cotton)  = 
Hindi  dhuti  (male  cotton  loin  cloth)-,  Tam.  seeley  =  Hmdi  sari 
(female  loin  cloth)  =  Pali  and  Skt.  "^ati ..  cantana,  Toda  todonm  = 
candana  (sandal);  kara  (black)  -  natu  (soil)  -  Karn  ua,  having  black 
soil  ;  kari,  karenu,  karabha,  black  animal,  ie.  elephant  Vana  (arrow), 
mayura  (peacock),  karpasa  (cotton)  are  of  Munda-Austro- Asiatic  origin. 

Saka  words  in  Mathura  Inscriptions  :  Muroda,  muronda  (lord) 
-Svami  ;  muronda  ==■  a  title  of  Kaniska  in  Zeda  inscription  ;  hora  'gif^ 
-  murunda  =  danapati  ;  balysa  =-  prabhu  ;  marghaka  -  grihapaii,  Vavuga  -^ 
chief ;  raghino,  eriuna  =  kumara. 


"2  THE  LITERAR?  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Agni-Knla,  Vadhana)  in  Nanaghat  cave  inscription.  On  coins  : 
Eano  Gotamiputasa  8iri  Sata  — Kanisa^  Siri  Kanha  (Krishna) 
Sata-Kanisa  :  Eano  Vasithi -putusa  Siri  Pulumavisa  ;  Rano 
Vasithi  putasa  Siva  Siri  Sata  -  Kamnisa.  Eano  Siri  Hariti 
putasa  Vishnu  Kaddcuta  Satakanni.  The  remains  of  horse 
sacrifices  have  been  found  in  the  ancient  cemeterj'  of 
Tralieborg,  a  flint  knife  being  driven  into  its  forehead  j  in 
52  places  of  horse  sacrifices  in  Hungary,  either  a  stone  or 
bronze  knife  vras  driven  into  its  forehead,  as  in  India.  The 
Mordwins  have  a  goodess  of  hearth  fire,  Marriage  takes  place 
before  it  ;  when  departing  the  married  daughter  takes  leave 
of  her  j  and  when  the  newly  wed  bride  (Skt.  navora-=Gk. 
neos  =  Lith.  nauius  =  Euss.  novuii  — Lat.  naus—It.  nuora)  is 
brought  to  her  husband's  home,  she  is  led  to  the  fire  to 
attend   to  it,   as      mentioned     in     Asvalayama     Grihya     Sutra. 

Siri  is  of  Dravidian  origin  ;  Ghagra  or  skirt  is  Indo-Aryan ; 
Pajama  ;  or  trousers  of  Scythan,  Saka-Huna  and  Persian  origin. 

Phonetic  changes  in  Indo' Iranian  :  Vendidad,  Hapta-  Hindava- 
Sapta  -  Sindhava  ;  Haetumant  -  Sistan  ;  Haraeva  =  Herat  ;  Pisinah  = 
Pishsn  -  Quetta  valley -Sindhu  with  Svetya  =  Swat,  Kubha  =  Kabul, 
Gomati  =  Gomal,  Krumu  =  Kurram.  Mehatnu  (Mianwali),  thou  art  cours- 
ing in  the  same  Channel,  X.  75  5  6.  Sushoma  =  Sohan  ;  Vipasa=  Beas. 
6.27,58  Hariyapia=Hariob  ;  Yavyavati  =  Zhob.  Sarasvati  =  Harahvati ., 
titahu  (sievej  =  titafi  Rv.  x,  71.  2.  =  Lith  tvoiu  ;  keralani  (one  who  bends 
the  bow)  =  krisanu  4.  27.  3,  the  guard  of  Soma  ,Siva  ;  ishtasva  1,122,13  = 
Vistaspa  ;  Parsu  =  Parsi,  Tirindara,  8  6,46  =  Tiridates  250  B.  C. 

Ural  Altaic  Turanian,  Kassite  and  Semitic.  Many  Assyrian  words 
have  also  found  place  in  Sanskrit:  Assur=Asura;  Dakash  (Orion)  =■ 
Daksha  Prajipati  ;  Kasshu,  Kassip  =  Kasyapa  ;  Shurias  -  Snrya  ■.  Sin  = 
Soma  ;  En  -  Zu  =  Amsu  'moonj  ;  Marutu  (ukku),  Marduk  =  Marutah  -, 
mutu  (death)  =  mrityu  ;  dipara  (lamp)  =  dipa  ;  ramu  ito  love)  =  raman  ; 
siru  (body)  =  sarira -.  apsu  (ocean)  =  apsukhit,  apas  (water)  i  Gula=«=Uru - 
Gula  ;  adu  (now)  =  adya;  umma  (mother)  ^amba  ;  naru  (river)  =  nira  ; 
nina  (fish)  =  mina;  Taimat  fdragon  of  tamtu  =  sea)  =  Taimata  Av. 
5,  13.  6  ;  Uttuku.  identified  with  Ea  =  Uttuda  Av.  3,  ^5-1  one  who 
stirs  up  love;  Bilgi  (a  disease  demon)  =  Aligi -Viligi  (.A  v.  5.  13.  7); 
tabuva -=  tabuva  ("Av  5.  13  10  ;  may  have  originated  from  Polynesian  taboo) 
person  destroyed  by  antidote  to  tabus  ;  karsu  (berry)  =  karsa-pana  (a 
copper  having  the  weight  of  a  berry).  Heb  yobel  (ram)=Jabala 
goatherd);  Ar  halahila  (deadly  poison  =  halahala  ;  pilakku  (axe)  = 
parasu)  ;  timbutu  (frame  druml  =  SI  tombattan  ;  Hebrew  kinnor  (lyre)  = 
SI  stick   zither  kinnori  ;    Anc.  Egypt   arched  harp  Vina  =  Vina. 

H.  Vasanasha  (  dress  )  =  vasana  •,  kupash  =  Czech  kupa  =  kupa, 
ditch  ;  vashta  (the  inierior  of  a  house)  =  Gk.  hesta  (fire  place)  =  L.  vesta  = 
vastu  ;  padfc.  padai  (foot)  =  L.  pedis  =  pada.  Wadar  =  Slav,  voda  =  Teut, 
Watan  =  Lith- wandu=  L.  unda  Gk.  udor  =  uda,  water  Baby,  karkuna 
=  Heb.   karkom  =  Gk.  kronas  =  Skt.  kunkuma,  saffron. 

Austro-Asiatic  words  in  Sanskrit :  Kadali  (banana),  tambula  (betel), 
jambu    (Eugenia,  jambolana  =  black  plum)  karpasa   (cotton),  alabu  (pump- 


SCRIPT  73 

Among  the  Finns  of  Ingeriuanland.  the  bride  must  sacrifice 
to  the  fire-goddess  when  she  comes  to  her  new  home. 
Among  the  Miigyars,  after  the  bride  returns  from  the  marriage 
ceremony  in  the  Church,  she  is  led  to  the  hearth  fire  of 
her  new  home,  Tahiti  was  the  hearth  goddess  of  the 
Scythians.  Votyaks  and  Carelian  Finns  use  wooden  neck  rests 
like  the  primitive  Magyars,  It  is  fouad  in  Polynesia  and 
Melanesia,  and  even  amongst  the  Japanese  ;  a  terracotta 
neck-rest  has  been  found  at  Mohenjodaro.  Finno-Ugrian 
word  for  iron  is  Magyar  vas,  Finn,  vaske.  Sam.  basa,  baza  = 
Mundari  basi,  Santali  pasi- Malay  basi,  Santali  pasi  — Malay 
basi,  0  Jav.  vesi.  Osfcyak  enga  for  Mother  — Santali  enga 
mother.  The  cerebral  i.  r,  d  of  the  Kolarians  is  the  same 
in  Dravidian.  No  doubt  there  was  some  relation  between 
Indo-Germanic  and  Finno  Ugrian  phonetic  morphology. 
Sata-Vahana  Andhras  also  spoke  a  kind  of  Prakrit  Pisachi. 
Dravidian  is  a  softer  speech  than  Zend  which  is  even  =ofter 
than  highly  inflectional  Sanskrit  as  Skt.  stri  becomes  Tamil 
istiri  .Pisaji  in  Nasik  inscription  of  Pulamayi  =  Tel.  Pisa 
(folly)  =  Kan.  Pisari  and  Tam.  Pic  pec  (infatuation). 

kin),  gaja,  matanga    (elephant),  bSna  (arrow),  langula.  linga  (digging  stick 
for  ploughing  and  for  penis),  nirikela  (cocoanut).  nirabuka  'lemon). 

With  some  diacritical  signs,  Indian  scripts  can  easily  be  written 
in  Roman  letters  to  their  great  advantages  to  facilititate  type-writing, 
printing,  inter-provincial  and  international  spread  of  their  literature. 
Capital  letters  may  be  omitted  to  save  time  and  space  as  they  are 
unnecessary  and  do  not  serve  any  useful  purposes.  ^11  =  a;  ^T  =  a; 
f  =  i  ;  i  =  I  ;  ^  =  u  ;  gj  =  fl  ;  ^^1  =  0;  ^i  =  w  ;  ^  =  k  >  ?it  =  q  or  kh  ; 
3jc=g;  g  =  gor  gh;  ^~h;  ^  =  c;  ?  =  c,  chors;9»  =  j;»fi  =  z;  ^-n; 
Z  =  ^;z  =  t;  ^  =  d-,  5  =  d;  q  =  n;fi=>t;q  =  t,  th,  9  =  d;^j  =  d  or  dh; 
5T  =  n;  q  =  p;  li-f;  J^^b;  «  =  b  or  bh;  JT  =  m;  q-=y-,  'C-r.  ^-=1  ; 
q  =  v;  3i  =  s;  ii  =  s,^-s;  ^  =  h;g  =  x;'=-ni;:  =  h.  Though  in  spoken 
languages  accentuation  of  vowels  is  seldom  done  and  some  letters  like 
^,  g,  '^,  Z,  3,  "5,  ^,  ^  are  but  sparingly  used  and  there  is  hardly 
any  distinction  in  pronouncing  ^,  sj,  ni  and  *!  ;  5,  sj,  q,  9  and  one  letter 
may  suffice  for  any  of  these  groups,  yet  for  phonetic  accuracy  and  for 
scholarly  works,  their  uses  may  be  retained. 


STELLAR  MYTHS 

Agni  {Hit  kgnish."  Phryg  Agnis  =  La^  Ignis  =-Lith.  Ugnis- 
sve7ite,  a,'aspicions  =  Slav  Ogoni  —  Artn  Agn  — Pali  aggi)  was  the- 
hearth  god  like  the  Roman  Fesfa  — Hellenic  Hestia  — Kit. 
Vashta  =  Altaic  SO  or  AOhedided  virgin  Mother  IJt,  according 
to  her  shooting  flames  — Hindu  Vastu.  Zd  atar,  athro  — 8kt 
athara,  athari  (fire)  •  Lat  ater  (fire  that  darkens  by  smoke  • 
Gk  aitho  (to  burn  as  a  flame)  ;  Zd  Athravan  =  Skt  Atharvan 
(fire-priest).  The  Romans  used  to  solemnize  their  marriage 
before  ignis  and  aqua  like  the  Hindus.  AH  the  commensals 
(sa'pindas)  of  the  Roman  household  daily  assembled  for  their 
common  meal  (coena)  in  the  atrium  before  the  hearth  fire, 
and  a  little  of  everything  that  was  cooked  was  first  offered  to 
goddess  Vesta,  representing  ancestral  spirits  =  Penates -Lares. 

Khatti  -  Mitannian  In  -  da  -  ra  -  Vrtrahan  Indra  =  Zd  Vere- 
thraghna  Andara  (in  some  texts  Indara— Bahran),  killer  of  Vrtra 
—  Vrata  =  Vratya  =  Arattas  =  Rattikas  -  Urartians  —  Rhaeti,      Gk. . 

Tochari  =  Tukharas,  Kiu  -  tse  =-  Kuci  =  Uigurian  Kusan  Lili  =  Kauseya 
=  Kusikas  =  Kasyapas,  Ugras  and  Kushans.  of  ETurkestan  were  known  . 
as -<4^w  =  Yen- Ki  =  Un-gu  =  Agneans.  We  have  names  like  Agnivarma 
whose  daughter  was  Rebhila,  Devi  Nayanikaya=  Nagnika,  daughter 
of  Agni  -  knla  —  Vardhana  Maharathi  Sodakana.  -  Abhira  Isvarasena's 
Nasik  Inscription.  Ural- Altaic  pious  master  and  mistress  of  the  house 
feed  the  fire  on  the  hearth  every  time  they  begin  their  meal.  The 
first  morsel  of  food,  the  first  cup  of  the  drink  belong  to  the  fire 
god,  especially  at  family  festivals.  A  fire  sacrifice  is  a  special  part 
with  the  wedding  rite  of  most  peoples  of  Altaic  race.  Both  theses 
practices  prevail  amonst  the  Hindus. 

Vritram   Vritrataram  (Rv.  1,    32,  5)     Incjra   was   also   called   Puram 
(Gk.  polls)   dara  (destroyer  of   city  states)     like   that   Mohenjodaro   and . 
Harappa      with     hundred     walls     (sata-bhuji).     Aryas-Arii   who     were 
mostly  Tentonic  Kelts  were  semi-nomadic  agriculturists.     Pure  copper  and ' 
bronze   and   copper   implements     with   widely     splayed   edges,  found    at 
Gungeria   in  C.  I.     resemble      closely      Gaelic     bronzes,    seen     in   Irish 
museums.     Indra  comes   out    from   his     mother's   side   (4,    18.    1-2).    an> 
expert     in   female   psychology     (8,   33     17)     and     taking     care    of  the 
children   of  unmarried   girls   (Rv.   2.    15.   7);   the     birth   of  Siddhartha 
has   taken   place    through     the   right   side   of      his   mother    Maya    Devi 
(Lalita     Vistara,   of   109,    96),     depicted   in     Gandhara     and     Mathura . 
sculptures,    that   is,    caesarean     section     which     was     known     in     India 
before  200   B.  C.     'If  the   child  still   lives,  the   mother's   corpse  is  taken, 
to   the   place  of  cremation   and  cut  open  by    the   knife   by   the    husband  . 
or  son  or   his  agent.     Father   then  says  :    May   my  son    live   many   years. 
in  felicity  (Baudhayana  of  Scythian  Budini    Pitri   Medha  Sutra  (12,    15) 
and  Vaikhanas  Grihya  Sutra   (7.    4).     As     in   India,   rain  is   uncertain.- 


STELLAR  MYTHS— INdRA  75 

andros  — strongman  Hercules  (or  is  it  Andhra),  the  sun  p^od  from, 
vernal  equinox  to  summer  solstice,  Centaurus,  riding  Airavati 
=  lightning,  elephant,  symbolizing  storm  cloud.  Not  only  was 
Indra  invoked  for  victory  in  war,  its  image  was  used  for  the 
same   purpose.     Who  will  buy  this  image  for  ten  cows  ?     When 

and    irregular,   Indra,  the    monsoon    god.    became    the  chief  of  gods,   as. 
on   rains    mainly  depended  agricultural  prosperity, 

Indra    (Andhra  — Andhaka -Andkhui)    in     order    to    help    Pftrihava 
Abhyavartin     Ch'iyamana     destroyed     Varasikhas      iLith.    Borusci)  ;    at: 
HariyapiyS    (Harappa),    the    vanguard    of    Vrchivans   (Vrshnis- Bursins 
of  Ansam)    were  defeated,  6,  27.  5.  Indra   demolished  a   hundred   ancient 
castles  of  Sambara  (Cymbry)  and  slew  many  Varchin's  (Bur-sins)  sons,  and 
cast   them    down  on   the   earth   (bhflmya   upasthe)    in  _aid    of  Atithigvi 
Divodasa   (Dacians)    and  Kutsa   (Kutzo   Vlachs)    and    Ayu    2.    14.    6-7. 
Indra   for    Divodasa     destroyed   a  hundred  walled   town    Rv.    4.     30   20. 
(satam     asmanmayinam   puram).     In    the     Sargon     period     2350     when» 
Sumer   came  under  Semites,  many   of  the    seals   found  at  Ur,    Kish   Tell 
Asmal   and  Susa    are     similar  to  those   of     Mohenjodaro    and     Harappa,. 
Copper    axe   age  found  at  6  feet     below     Mohenjodaro    is     paralleled    in 
early    Minoan  II,  Troy  II  and  Hissar    III.    Harappa    is    full    of   mudbrick 
defence   walled     citadels     with    baked   brick     revetments      HP    35.     At 
Harappa     in     Area   G    a  lightly     packed     mass     of     human    skulls    (20 
completely   separated   from   the   body)      and    fragments   of    others,    inter 
mixed    with  a  small  number  of  human  long  bones    have    been     found.     At 
Mohenjodaro   skeletons   of    13    adult    males    and     females    and    a   child, 
some  still   wearing   bracelets    and   rings    were  found    in    varied    attitudes 
suggesting   simultaneous     death     HP.    35.     Harappa   II    cemetery   might 
belong  to  the  Indra -Dacian  invaderes.  Indra  loved  and  aided  Kutsa  1,33,. 
14-  Kutsa  Arjuneya  1,  112.  25. 

Indra  -  the  summer  solsticial  sun  by  its  heat  -  smote  Vrtra  (glacier 
frost  of  the  winter)  who  enclosed  the  waters  (2.  14.  2),  encompassed 
the   waters    '6.  20.  2i,    slew    the   demon    lying  on    the    waters   (5.30.6). 

cleaving  the  rocks,  releasing  the  pent  up  waters  like  the  milk  imprisoned' 
in  cow's  udder  (1.  57.  6)  It  resembles  the  Teutonic  myth  of  hammer 
god  Odin   destroying  frost  giants  Ymir   and    Hvimthursa. 

Varuna   is  the  ruler   raja   (1,24.    7),   sovereign  (kshatra),  noble  lord 

(Asura   arya  7.  65.  2),  supreme  monarch  (samrat)  who    by  his  rta  (order - 
gravitational   pull)  the   moon  shining   brightly     moves   at    night   and    the 

stars    are  seen  at   night  and    disappear  by   day    (1.     24.    10),    and   by  his 

pasahs-  fetters,  the  Zodiac,  he  holds  them  in  their  proper  places  and  do  not 

allow   them  any    deviation    from    their    courses.     His     spies   (spasah)   are 

the  sun  and  the  moon  (1,  24.  13  ;  6.  70.  1). 

Asvins,  the  divo  napat-Lith.  dewo  sunnelei— sons   of  heaven— come 

riding  in  the  morning  to  woo  the  radiant  daughter  of  the  sun-  Lett.   dewa. 

dehli-the   long  and  lingering     twilight— Sury.'i     of   the    arctic   region; 

Gk.  dios   nepodes(-2    nepot-is -Ger  Neff  e  =  nephew; -grand     child   of 

the     day-Khatti       Na-sa-at-at-tiya=Nasatya -Zd.      Naonhaithya- Gk. 

nastos    (one   who  returns)  =  Fu.    Nastasija.     Though    Soma    was  the  woer 

(vadhayur).    Asvins   became     her     bridegrooms  (vara)  :    Soma     vadhQyor: 

abhavad   Asvinastaam  ubha   varS   x,  85.  9. 


"76  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

he   has   slain  his  foes,   he   may  return  it  to  me  :    Rv.   4.    24.    10. 
"Inar   was     Khatti-Mitannu     ( Madaya  =  Umman     Manda  =•  Mada 
—  Midianiteai     god     of    virile     vigor  =  Gk.     aaer=Skt.    Nara - 
Narayana.     Khatti  Arunash  (sea  godj  =  Varuna  =  Gk.  Uranos. 

Mitra  (Zd.  Mithra  =  Khatti  -  Mitannian  Mi-it- tore)  is  the 
sun  from  the  v^inter  solstice  [agohya,  I,  '61,  L3)  to  vernal 
equinox,  the  days  becoming  longer,  day  and  night  come  to 
the  equal  length.  The  Nativity  of  Mithra  — Soli  Tnvicto 
Mithrae-the  invincible  sun,  the  hero,  the  lover,  was  celebrated 
by   the   Romans    on  Dec.  26,  as  they  could  not   exactly  calculate 

Indra  (Gk.  Andres  =  virile  man)  as  a  lover  i  A  centaur  gallops 
through  a  wood  bearing  away  a  nude  Lepith  woman  ;  he  wears  a 
wreath  of  long  leaves,  inserting  his  fingers  into  her  vagina,  she 
holding  his  neck  hy  her  right  arm  ;  bust  human,  lower  part  equine. 
There  is  an  amphora  on  the  ground  ;  there  is  a  tree  to  the  centre  : 
Etruscan  D  48  Cippus  fsepai  in  the  form  of  phallus  in  the  hands 
of  a  woman  :  Etruscan  D  82.  Kinnara  -  Mithuna  I'-S"  high,  I'-lt" 
long.  \Q-r,"  broad,  formerly  in  AlUhabad  Public  Library,  of  Kushan 
origin.  The  figure  of  the  centauress  consists  of  a  human  female  bust 
with  that  of  the  lower  portion  of  a  galloping  horse  ;  her  companion 
borne  on  her  back  is  looking  in  a  mirror,  held  in  his  left  hand.  The 
•centauress  wears  a  garland  round  her  neck,  bracelets  on  her  wrists  and 
a  flat  girdle  round  her  waist  A  medallion  on  the  railing  of  Sanchi  ; 
a  centaur  and  a  centauress  carrying  a  woman  and  a  man  respectively. 
A  circular  terracotta  plaque  no  2350  found  at  Mathura  ;  a  galloping 
Kinnara  (Cimmerian  =  Cen-Tauri  =  of  Sarmatia  =  Gandarae  =  Gandharva. 
Cen  Tauries  used  to  ride  so  fast  on  their  horses,  the  man  and  his 
horse  were  regarded  and  depicted  in  Greek  myths  as  the  same  person 
as  the  Amerinds  when  they  first  saw  a  Spaniard  on  his  horse  back 
believed  the  horse  and  its  rider  to  be  one  being.  Kinnara  was 
■first  depu  ttid  with  the  upper  part  of  a  man  with  the  lower  part  of 
a  horse  ;  later  in  Buddhist  paintings  and  literature,  the  uppar  part  of  a  man 
or  woman,  the  lower  part  of  a  bird  Kinnaras  and  Kinnaris  were  of  roman- 
tic disposition,  fond  of  amours,  songs  and  dances. 

Daksha  invited  his  daughter  Sathi  (Egypt,  Sati  =  Sopdet  =  Gk,  Sothis, 
Sirius,  the  mistress  of  the  year  and  the  heave n,  the  goddess  of  fertility, 
as  its  heliacal  rising,  the  occasion  of  great  festivity,  concided  with  the 
Nile  flood,  consort  of  lightning  god  Sethi  ;  Ram-headed  Khnum  of 
Elephantine  had  two  consorts — Sati  and  Anuki)  to  a  festival  but  ignored 
her  husband  ;  with  her  husband's  persuaded  consent  she  went  to  the 
festival.  But  as  her  husband  Bhujangadhara  Siva  (Ophinchus,  holding 
a  sepent— Serpens  in  his  hand  and  round  his  body  =  Asclepius,  the 
healer)  was  insulted,  she  committed  suicide.  Siva  hearing  this  hastened 
to  the  place  with  the  help  of  Kalapurusa  (Orion)  who  scattered  the 
gods  from  their  gathering  (is  it  a  mythical  rendering  of  the  astronomical 
phenomenon  of  an  explosion  of  a  supernova),  and  put  her  on  his  head 
and  danced  furiously,  and  her  body  fell  into  pieces  and  formed  into 
Milky  Way  and  her  urine  into  Akasa  Ganga  —the  Eridanus  (Sumerian 
Ariadan  =  the  Hearenly  River);  her  body  falling  down  became  Sati, 
.Uma  (the  earth  mother)    and    Bharata  Mata.   Thian-Shan  and  Hindukush 


STELLAR  MYTHS -FATI  77 

the  f?olstice  day  on  21st.  Christians  called  it  after  Mithra- 
worshippers  the  Nativity  of  Christ.  But  the  Myateries  of 
Mithra  was  celebrated  at  the  vernal  equinox  on  L'ist  March 
-the  New  Year  Day  ~Nawrose  =  when  Mithra  entered  into 
Taurus  («=Sem.  thauru  — Czech,  tur— Zd.  staora=Skt.  sthun, 
sthurin  =  steer  1  and  was  celebrated  by  Mithra  worshippers  by 
killing  the  bull  and  feasting  on  it.  Mitra  spies  (spas-Ger 
spaheu  =  Lat.  specere- OF  espir)  the  conduct  of  every  one  and 
knows  even  his  inner  feeling.  Spies  (spasah)  of  Mitra- 
Varuna  are  wise  and  undeceived  -  6.  67.  6.  Eimidine  7.  104.  'J. 
which  Syana  explains  as  Kimidamin  -  what  now  — Lat.  quidnunc, 
spy  and  informer.  Ardvi  Sura  Anahita  is  the  consort  of 
Mithra.  Anahita  purifies  semen-virile  and  the  womb,  gives 
easy  delivery  and  creates  in  the  breasts  of  mothers  their 
milk  and  ajEford  them  their  general  well  being  (Yasna  45.  '2i. 
Anahita  is  a  buxom  maiden  with  a  low  heavy  girdle,  holding 
a  gold-embroidered  dress,  her  under-garment  being  made  of 
300  soft  beaver  skins,  who  have  borne  4  young  each  ;  a 
gold  necklace  encircles  her  neck  ;  she  wears  square  gold 
earrings,   and  on     her   head   a   golden   crown    with    a    hundred 


is  her  head  ;  her  Chin  is  in  Hingula  (Susa  where  the  temple  of  Nana 
IS  situated  whose  image  was  taken  by  Assurbanipal  in  646  B.C.  to 
ureh',  Kashmir  is  her  neck  One  of  her  eye  is  the  deep  blue  Bindu 
Sara  or  Nagahrada=*Sarik-Kul  in  Pamir  from  which  the  river  Akshu 
(Oxus)  has  risen  ;  the  other  eye  is  the  Manas  Saravara  ;  the  undulating 
waves  of  the  dark  Himalayan  Range  are  her  long  heavy  and  wavy 
tresses  from  Kailasa  ;  Pfmiir  is  her  nose  ;  right  swollen  breast  is 
Gangotri  up  to  Jalandhara  ;  her  left  breast  is  RSmagiri  in  Gandhfira  ; 
Sind^hu  and  Ganga  are  her  extended  arms  ;  Ssvitri  in  Aravalli  is  her 
heart  ;  Satpura  at  the  mouth  of  the  Narbada  and  Parsanath  are  her 
nates  (nitamba)  ;  Indhyadri  (Ajanta)  is  her  mons  veneris  fjaghana 
upastha  =  yonipitha)  covered  with  dark-leaved  Sala  forest  as  her  long 
and  dense  pubic  hairy  growth  ''the  Greeks  nicknamed  pubic  hair  as 
myrtle  leaf,  and  the  solitary  myrtle  crimson  flower  as  menstrual  bloom  ; 
therefore  the  myrtle  was  sacred  to  Aphrodite)  ;  Godavari  is  her  wat^r 
of  life  (kama  salila),  secreted  from  her  vagina  (bhaga)  ;  according  to 
Devi  Purana  her  yoni  is  in  Kmiarupa  ;  Mahadeo  Hill  is  her  pelvis 
(palavi  cakra)  ;  Sahyadri  and  Mahendra  are  her  two  thighs  and  legs  ; 
her  feet  are  Kumarika  and  Lanka. 

Centaurus  .Indra  =  Zd  Indra  as  daeva  =  demon)  is  overhead  in  the  sky 
in  the  southern  hemisphere  on  May  7  at  11  P.  M.  ;  May  22  at  10  P.M.  ; 
June  6  at  9  ;  June  21  at  S  ;  July  1  at  7-20  P..M  Closely  SE  of  it  is  Ara 
—the  fire  altar  ^Agni)  for  which  Indra-Agni  are  often  together  in  the 
Vedas.  Centaurus  appears  in  sky  in  December  and  disappears  at  the 
end  of  October  ;  Ara  appears  in  southern  sky  in  January  and 
disappears  at  the  end  of  December  in  S\V  sky. 

Hydra,  the  water  snake,  the  Vritra  of  the  Vedas,  representing  drought, 
appears  in  SE  sky  in  December,  comes  overhead  in  April  and  dis- 
appears  in   SW  sky  in  July.    N.  W.  of  Hydra  is  Virgo.     A6  in  June  July 


^78  THB  LITBRABY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

•stars  of  8  rays -the  star  of  Baby.  Ishtar,  Ishtar  is  addressed 
:a8  Minuanni,  the  passionate  -  Manini.  Anahita  might  be 
-fli  development  of  Babylo  — Egyptian  nude  goddess  Anat,  riding 
on  a  lion,  thus  taming  brute  force,  or  coming  after  Leo,  that 
is,  representing  Virgo,  holding  a  serpent,  symbols  of  passion 
and  penis  in  her  one  hand,  and  a  sheaf  of  barley,  representmg 
fertility  and  prosperity  in  the  other— Tannib  of  Phoenicia ■= 
Anunit  of  Agad,  Innini  of  Sumer,  Anaitis-Aphrodite  of 
Armenia,  or  most  likely  Aquarius  as  she  symbolized  irrigation 
and  fertility  -  Sumerian  Bau  -  Gula,  (Av.  5.  13.  bUru-Gtila), 
in  seals  a  seated  goodess  holding  sheaves  of  corn  to  bless 
wedded  love,  and  as  a  goddess  of  desire,  she  is  nude  with  a  pubic 
dark  triangle  and  pronounced  vulva.  Kassite  Dakash,  Suriyas 
and  Maruttaka-Daksha,  Surya,  and  Marutah  representing  the 
fiky,  and  the  sun  and  Mars.  Daksha  Prajapati  begat  Kasyapa 
(Cassiopei  is  overhead  in  the  sky  in  Nov  and  Dec),  Kasyapa 
married  Kadru  (Cepheus)  who  became  the  mother  of  Nagas 
•(Draco «"  Manasa)  and  Vinata  (Andromeda)  who  became  the 
•mother  of  Garura  (Aquila^  Svena).  In  an  argument  with 
Kadru,  Vinata  became  enslaved  to  Kadru.  But  Vinata's  son 
stole  the  jar  of  ambrosia  Kumbha  — Amphora  of  Aquarius) 
and  released  her  mother  (Andromeda  in  chains,  released 
according  to  Hellenic  legends  by  Perseus,  being  attracted 
.by  her  beauty).  According  to  the  Babylonian  legends  "the 
storm  bird  Zu  stole  the  tablets  of  Destiny  and  sought  to  view 
in  power  with  the  great  gods  (Altair  =  Sravana  by  its  brilliance)." 
Thus  Aquila  took  the  place,  though  extra  zodiacal,  of  the  place  of 
Aquarius  which  has  no  first  class  star  of  its  own. 

•Centaurus    and    Virgo    are    very    close,    Virgo    is   called  Indrani.     The 
Riksha   (  =  Gk.    Aractos- Bear  =  Ursa    Major  =  Sumerian     Margidda)     set 
high    in    heaven    that    shines    at   night    where   does  it  disappear  at  day 
(Rv.    124.10)?     In  winter    months    it    is    not   visible    even  from  North 
India   but   prominent   in    N   sky    in   March    and  April,     Its  seven  bright 
•stars    were    called    by    the    Romans    Septen    triones  =  Seven     Ploughing 
Oxen,    in   the   Vedas   as   Saptarshi    (  =  Zd.    Haptoiringa),   in  the  Puranas 
as  Gokula.     Seven    Rishis    (Sat    Br    2  1.21)  are   regarded  as  seven  stars, 
who    have    been     originally     bears.      Dube  =  Dhruva  =  Kratu  ;  Merak  = 
Pulaha  ;     Phenda  =  Pulasta ;      delta -Atri;     Epsilon  =  Angiras  ;     Iota  = 
Vasista ;  Mu  =  Marichi.    The    binary    Alcor  near  Vasista   is    Arundhati. 
'It    is    said    Agni    (Ara)    was    wandering    in   the   sky  for  a  consort.     He 
'Seduced   the  wives   of  Six  Rishis,  but  could  not  tempt     Arundhati  who 
remained    steadfast    to    Vasista.    These    six  wives  became  the  six  promi- 
nent stars  in  Pleiades  =  Kirtika. 

Prajapati  Brahma  Vivasvan  (Zd  Vivanhvant  =  Gk  lason  =  Jason  *  Rom 
'Jonus  =  Ganes  a)  enamoured  of  his  own  daughter  Usha  (Gk  Eos  was  reg- 
arded as  an  Aphrodite ;  Eos  an  ever  amorous  goddess,  rosy  figurine 
as  the  rising  sun  spreads  rosy  coloured  image  before  it  rises. 
According    to    Appolodorus    (1,   27  P    Eos    was      born    of     Aphro- 


STELLAR  MYTHS  — KRISHNA  79 

In  NE  sky  appear  Hercules  and  Virgo  in  March  ;  they  are 
.Krishna  and  Kadha,  Sumerian  Gilgamesh  and  Ishtar  ; 
Phoenician  Aatarte  carved  on  wag  carries  a  lotus  and  hears 
on  her  head  cow's  horn  at  Nimrud  of  9th  century  B.  C. 
(I.  L.  N.  July  22,  60).  Ursae  are  their  catties.  Draco  (Kalia 
Nag  — Manaea)  is  not  visible  with  the  ascendency  of  Hercules 
in  SE  sky  ;  so  Krishna  is  said  to  have  killed  Kalai  Nag  in 
the  Yamuna,  the  bifurcated  Milky  Way.  Cepheus  (Egypt.  Ihe 
dwarf  Be8  —  Narada)  plays  Vina  (Ijyra\  neighboring  constella- 
tions. Dwarf  Negroes  were  utilized  by  ancient  Egyptian  aristo- 
cracy to  entertain  and  amuse  them  and  to  guard  children. 
Krishna's  step  brother  Bala-Rama  carried  a  plowshare  on  his 
right  shoulder  for  which  he  was  called  Halayudha.  In  Greek 
legends  Bootes  tilled  his  land  successfully  by  inventmg  the 
plow  which  he  hitched  to  his  two  oxen  for  which  he  obtained 
the  title  of  Herdsman  =  Ox-driver -Arcturus,  and  for  which  he 
was  placed  in  the  heavens  to  follow  the  stars  of  Ursa  which 
resembles    a  plow.     In  Rome  Ursa   Major   was   called  plowshare 

dite  and  Ares.  Sarasvati,  SaviU  ;  to  Aphrodite  as  goddess  of 
fertility  goat  was  sacred  and  she  rides  on  it;  Terpon,  the  phallic 
demon  attended  on  her).  Usha  changed  herself  into  a  doe  Rohini 
(Aldebaram  in  Taurus).  Prajapati  in  order  to  catch  and  clasp  her 
in  his  arms  followered  her  as  a  stag  ;  (Sat  Br  2.1.2S  says  that  Mrigasira 
=  Arm.  Margazana,  Zd  Meregu-Fers.  Merg,  bird  =  G.  Orionis  = 
Bellatrix.  Likewsse  regarded  by  the  Chinese).  At  this  Rudra 
(Sagittarius)  being  incensed  at  the  father  (Orion  -  Sumer.  Uru-Anna, 
the  light  of  heaven)  copulating  with  his  own  daughter  (Rv.  X,  61,  6) 
aimed  his  arrow  at  him.  In  the  Greek  legends,  lason  (in  some  version. 
Poseidon)  desired  union  with  his  sister  Demeter  (corn  mother,  from  deai, 
the  Cretan  form  of  zeias  -  barley  ;  earth  mother  from  da,  regarded  as  the 
form  of  ge  =•  earth  -  Thraco-Phrygian  earth  (Lith.  Zeme  -  Zemlga)  goddess 
(Zemelo  =  Syamala),  and  Demeter,  in  order  to  escape  him.  ran  over 
.thrice  plowed  field,  changing  herself  into  a  mare.  lason  (Poseidon) 
became  a  horse  and  copulated  with  her  ;  at  this  Zeus  hurled  his 
terrible  thunderbolt  at  lason.  Artemis  'Sagittarius),  a  huntress,  armed 
with  bow.  quiver  and  arrows,  aimed  her  arrows  at  Orion,  a  handsome 
hunter,  as  he  attempted  to  rape  Eos  =  the  dawn  maiden,  the  long  and 
lingering  twilight  of  the  arctic  region,  and  changed  Eos  into  a  doe.  The 
■Orion,  one  of  the  most  conspicious  constellation  in  the  configuration  of 
a  giant  with  a  sword  in  his  right  uplifted  hand,  a  shield  in  his  left,  a 
girdle  with  three  bright  stars,  rises  in  E  sky  A  little  south  of  it  is  Taurus. 
•From  his  left  foot  spreads  the  long  serpentine  celestial  river— Eridanus— 
the  Bhagirathi  Akasa  Ganga.  In  front  of  him  is  Aquarius,  in  the  shape 
of  person  (in  Baby  pictures,  a  nude  female)  pouring  out  from  an  Amphora 
(Kumbha)  a  stream  of  water,  which  flows  into  the  mouth  of  a  Southern 
fish  (Piscis  Australia  =  J/a<5yfl-Zd.  Misyo^.  In  Hindu  Mythology. 
Matsya  (Pisces)  and  Kurma  (Cancer)  are  representives  of  Vishnu,  that  is 
luminaries,  Philistines  used  to  worship  Da  (lord)  Gan  (I.  Sam  2-3). 
Heb.  dagon- grain.  Phoenicians  ascribed  to  Dagon  the  invention  of 
plow  and  the  production  of  grain.     Dagon   became  the  Amorite   war  god 


80  THE  LITEEABY  HISTORy  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

and   its  seven   bright    stars    called    septan   triones  — seven    plow- 
ing  oxen.     The     G-reeks   regarded    Sagitta     with    five   stars   as- 
the   arrow   of    Eros    as  well  as  of  Hercules.     Madana   (Etruscan 
Mutunus)  darted   his     wanton    and    playful   mischievous   golden 
arrow    (Sagitta     between   the     branches   of  the    Milky    Way  — 
Yamuna,   and   shot   with  it  serpent-bearer    Siva    (Ophiuchus)  to 
enamour  him  of   Gauri  (Virgo),  all   close   neighborly    constella- 
tions,  and  Siva   in   his    anger    burnt     Madana    into   ashes,  and 
became  impersonal  (Ananga)  ^  that  is  in  Dec.  Hercules  and  Virgo 
are   not  seen.    Madana   caturdasi    is     celebrated    in   the   end   of 
March   with   the  ascent   of  Hercules   in  E    sky  ;    in     July  when 
Hercules  is   almost     overhead,     Krishna's    Bhadra   Janmastami 
is  celebrated.     Manasa      (Draco  — Chin     Dragon  =  Rhea- Egypt. 
Buto)    become    prominent   in   NW     sky   in     July   and    August 
and   so   worshipped   in  Sravana,     Her    prominent   star  Thubaa 
was  regarded  by  ancient  Egyptians  as   the    Polar   in    2000   B.  G. 
Either  Thuban  or   its  adjacent    star  DAwfie  of   Ursa    Major   was 
the   Dhruba   of    the    Hindus  ;    in   the   marriage    ceremony    the 
husband  pointing  this  polar  star   used    to  say   to  the  bride  :     Be 
steadfast  and  unfaltering  to  the  like  this  Dhruba. 


and  a  golden  mouse   was   given   to   him   as  a   votive    offering.     Mouse  is 
is  also  the  carrier  of  Ganesa  iGana  +  isa  =  lord  =  Lord  Gana. 

According  to  B  Hrozny  in  his  Ancient  History  of  Western  Asia, 
India  and  Crete,  Prague,  though  only  a  minority  of  Indus  signs  appear 
to  be  similar  to  those  of  the  Hittite  hieroglyphic  writing,  and  there  is 
missing  ihe  important  sign  for  god,  yet  he  reads  the  inscription  on  the 
Mohenjodaro  humped  bull,  Tab  3.  337  as  JVa- ska- ska  =  a  seal  of  the 
temple;  on  Mackay's  Further  Excavation  Tab.  94.  ^{l,  S/ii  Na-fa~ 
ya  =  Natya's  seal  ;  on  M  amulet  Tab.  94.  420,  Fig.  99,  so  called 
three-faced  sitting  Pasupati  with  buffalo  horns  headdress  and  surrounded 
by  animals  as  Ya  shi  ihie  Keu-eya  =  '\\&:Qi\\'i  sacrificial  feeforKueya  = 
Bab.  Kuya  =  J/.  -^//5/%/'=  Subarean-Harri  moon  god  Kushush  ;  M.  Unt 
aeta=  Harri  Unteya,  consort  of  Kushush  •,  the  circumcised  stone  phallus 
Tab.  14.  4  is  his  emblem;  Harappa  1  Tab  12.  12.  Fig.  Ill  as 
Shi-e -  e-  iya  =  a  seal  amulet  of  Shia  =  M  Shi  =  isha -  with  vulva  emblem, 
and  tiger  as  her  favarite  =  lr.  goddess  of  fertility  Ashi  ;  M  Tab.  98,  598 
Ushis  =  Ushas  ;  M  Tab  113.  454  Na-u  (Beng.  nau  =  Gk.  neos  =  L  navis 
=  nava,  6  58.3)  Fa -^ae  =  the  ship  of  Yayae  =  Yaveh  =  Yahva  3.1.12,  with 
tree  emblem.  The  Cylinder  seal  of  Sharkaisharri  2270,  showing  Gilgamesh 
holding  a  flowing  waterpot  from  which  a  buffalo  is  drinking  water. 

A  Hittite  seal:  Two  hawks  chasing  a  hare.  H.  Kupaposh  =  Gk. 
Kybele  =  Kali  ;  Luite  god  Shandosh  =  Gk.  Sandos=  Etruscan.  Tarhon  = 
Skt.  Santosa.  Arunash  (as  sea  god  in  Boghaskoi  inscription  )  =  Gk. 
Uranos  =  Varuna  Lelvanish  =  Ishtar,  Lavanya,  H.  Vattaesh  =  Cretan  Vatesh. 
=  L.  Vates  =  M.  Vaiaya  =  Skt.  Vyasa,  in  the  sense  of  seer,  H.  Sheshshiyaa 
=  Cretan  sheshi  «=•  Skt.  sasya»  corn  ;  Harri  Shakush  =  Skt.  Sakuna  (vulture)  ; 
the  owl  represented  Ishtar  and  Athena. 

In  myths  early  in  spring   (vasanta  =  Slav.  Vesna)   when    Pavana  (Rom. 
Favonus)  was   wafting  delightful   perfume  from    the   expanding  flowers,. 


STELLAR  MYTHS— HARA-OAURI  81 

"As  a  maiden  yields  to  the  youth  that  comes  to  her  with 
an  ardent  love  in  a  tryst,  so  all  the  planets -atioaryu.s- are 
in  mutual  rapport  with  the  Devi  (x.  bO,  b  ;  Oscan  deivai -hah. 
delves).  The  sun  -  Surya- enters  into  Apo  (I,  28.  17)  ;  the  sua 
enters  into  Aquarius  at  present  on  January  20.  When  the  full 
moon  (Zd.  Mali)  was  in  Apo  (Zd.  Apam),  known  also  as 
Satabhusa  (Zd.  Satavaesa),  the  exhilerating  joyous  festival  of 
Soma  (Zd.  Haemo)  took  place  as  praised  in  9th  mandala, 
with  drinking  Soma  (Zd.  haemo -S.  China  huo-ma  =  hemp', 
called  Siddhi,  Bhang)  drinks,  dancings  and  merriments.* 
Apo  was  Kassite  E-Apsu,  Sumerian  Ea  who  had  a  fiah  on 
the  back  of  his  head  Zd.  and  2.  35  Apam  Napat=Kom. 
Neptunus.  Pisces -Trita  =  Zd.  Thrita="Gk.  Triton,  a  merman, 
human  down  to  the  waist  with  a  tapering  tail.  In  Babylonia 
the  Orion  was  called  Tammuz  and  Ur  — Anna  ;  in  Egypt,  Unas, 
Sahu  and  Horus  ;  in  Puranas,  Prajapati  as  well  as  Kila- 
Purusha  Yama.  In  Egyptian  myths,  Horus  ferries  in  heaven 
(Argo  Navis-6.  58.  3  Nava)  K-the  soul  of  the  dead. 
Canopus,  the  brightest  star  of  Argo  Navis,  is  the  steerraan 
Agastya.  And  ocean  voyage  to  the  South  is  called  Agastya 
Yatra,  foreboding  disease  and  death.  Vivasvan's  son  (Yama  — 
Orion)  dwells  in  remote  recesses  of  the  heaven  (9,  113.  8). 
Yama  is  death,  and  owl  (Uluka-Corvus)  and  pigeon  (Kapata 
—  Columba)  are  his  messengers  (x,  165.  4).  Two  four  eyed 
broad-nosed  brindled  brown  dogs  (Sabalas  Rv.  x  14.  lU-Gk. 
Cerberus -=Canis     Major,    Canis    Minor)   guard      the     pathway 

and  birds  and  insects  were  singing  love  songs,  Gauri  as  Rati  (=•  Yt.  17 
Ritis,  goddess  of  fertility  =  (Gk.  Erota)  was  amorously  yearning  for  uniou 
with  Hara  (Gk.  Ares).  Hara  remained  indifferent  and  absorbed  in  con- 
templation of  the  beauties  of  nature.  But  suddenly  Hara  found  that 
passionate  urges  were  disturbing  his  tranquility,  and  opening  his  eyes 
saw  Madana^  Roman  Mutunus  =  Cupid  (Lat  cupere  =  to  desire -Skt.  kup, 
kopana  to  be  excited  =  erect  penis)  was  aiming  his  flowery  shafts  against 
him  ( that  is  the  beauty  of  Gauri,  fragrance  of  flowers  roused  his  senses 
which  canalized  into  his  involuntary  erect  penis  ;  and  Hara  burnt 
Madana  into  ashes  ;  so  Madana  becoming  bodiless  became  Ananga 
(  that  is  Hara  suppressed  his  erotic  urge,  Manmatha— churner  of  the  mind, 
stirring  up  emotions).  At  this  Gauri  pleaded  for  the  life  of  Madana. 
Hara  promised  that  Kama  (  love  )  will  ever  remain  disembodied  ;  but  only 
will  be  materialized  at  the  embrace  of  lovers.  Love  is  essentially,  a  phychic 
phenomenon,  a  transcendental  attraction  of  the  senses,  an  emotional 
yearning,  an  unending  striving  in  the  ecstatic  participation  in  the  union 
with  the  beloved  ;  but  during  sexual  embrace  erotic  longing  becomes 
gratified  in  the  orgastic  union  with  the  beloved  person. 

In  Babylonia,  where  the  water  pours  from  the  amphora,  instead  of  a 
fish,  herbs  and  red  flowers  grow.  Amphora  represents  uterus  which  has 
the  shape  of  a  jar,  water  vaginal  and  cervical  secretion  through  sexual 
excitement,  herbs— pubic  hairy  growth,  and  the  red  flowers— menses.  In 
Hindu  marriage  and  other  auspicious  ceremonies,  a  water-filled  jar 
covered   with     ever    green     mango    leaves    and     red     flowers,    called 

6 


82  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANOIBNT  INDIA 

(Milky  Way)  of  Yama  (Orion),  Agni  is  the  friend  of  Yama. 
for  by  consuming  the  dead,  he  sends  the  purified  soul  to 
Yama  (x,  l(j.  9).  In  the  Avesta  a  four-eyed  yellow  eared 
dog  keeps  watch  at  the  Cinvat  Bridge  (Milky  Way).  Cerberus 
guards  the  river  Styx  made  out  of  flowing  tears  which  has 
to  be  crossed  by  the  dead.  The  dog  hunts  the  boar  (Lepus) 
and  bites  the  ears  of  Vrishakapi  (Monoceros  =  unicorn -= 
Ekasringi  •  unicorn  animals  have  been  found  in  Mohenjodaro 
seals  and  Chinese  (Ohi-Lin)  paintings  ;  x,  86.  4.,  one  horned 
rhinoceros  of  Assam.  At  Floralia,  a  fawn  colored  dog  was 
sacrificed  to  Sirius.  According  to  the  legend  Sarama  (Gk. 
Hermeia)  was  in  love  with  his  brother  (Gk.  Hermes  as  the 
herald  of  the  gods  was  employed  to  conduct  the  shades 
of  the  dead  from  the  upper  into  the  lower  world),  and  none 
of  them  would  do  any  work,  except  erotic  dalliance,  father 
Prajapati  separated  them,  placing  them  on  the  other  side  of 
a  river,  promising  them  however  that  they  woald  be  united 
once  a  year  if  they  performed  their  alotted  work  faithfully  ; 
but  as  they  simply  wasted  their  time  at  gazing  and  talking 
with  each  other  over  the  river,  they  were  placed  in  the 
heavens  as  dogs  (deva  suni).  Sirius  of  Canis  Major,  was 
however  not  only  regarded  as  Sothi  in  Ancient  Egypt, 
Sati  in  Puranas,  Tishtrya  in  Iran,  presiding  over  rain  and 
granting  ferlility  to  the  fields  (Tir  Yt),  in  India  as  auspicious 
Pushya  =  6.  64.  13  Tishya. 

Mangala  Kalasi  is  generally  used.  In  Babylonia.  Bau — Gula  [Ma -Ma] 
representing  Aquarius,  riding  over  a  duck,  was  a  great  goddess,  giver  of  life 
water  and  fertility,  and  wakening  desires  in  man.  In  Gudea's  time  the  New 
Year  began  with  her.  In  India  Sarasvati  riding  over  a  swan  (Cygnus,  a 
neighborly  constellation)  is  the  goddess.  In  ancient  Greek  vases  Aphrodite 
is  found  on  the  swan.  In  Iran  Ardvisura  Anahita  in  the  shape  of  a  pretty 
damsel  with  prominent  breasts,  is  the  goddess  of  generation  and  all  sexual 
life ;  even  religious  prostitution  was  transferred  to  her  service.  In 
Bactria,  her  cult  image  had  a  golden  crown  with  eight  rays  and  hundred 
stars,  and  one  thousand  ar_ms  which  represented  the  Oxus  with  a  thousand 
canals.  In  the  Vedas  as  Apah.  "The  delightful  goddess  advances  in  the 
path  of  luminaries  (  7.  47.  3),  in  whom  the  moon  is  delighted  as  a 
youth  is  charmed  with  a  pleasant  buxom  maiden  ;  so  approach  Apo 
and  adorn  her  fragrant  herbs  (x.  30.  5) 

According  to  Chinese  Folk  Lore  the  sun  god  had  a  daughter  Chih  Nu 
(Lyra  =  Vega)  who  excelled  by  her  skill  in  weaving  and  her  industrial 
habits.  To  reward  her.  he  had  her  married  to  Keng  Nu,  the  herdsman 
(Aquilla)  who  herded  his  cattle  on  the  silver  stream  of  heaven  (  the 
Milky  Way),  As  soon  as  they  were  married^  Chih  Nu  changed  her  habits  ; 
she  forsook  her  looms  and  gave  herself  up  to  merry  making  and  volup- 
tuous day-dreamings.  Thereupon  her  father  decided  to  separate  the 
lovers  by  the  stream  aud  placed  them  oh  one  side  of  the  Milky  Way, 
allowing  the  husband  to  meet  his  wife  over  a  bridge  of  many  thousand 
magpies  only  once  a  year,  on  the  seventh  day  of  the  seventh  month  which 
is  a  holiday  in  China  even  now. 


ASTRONOMY 

].  Surya  (Zd  hvare  for  svar,  Lat  sol  =  Gk.  helioa  from 
seiros,  hot  and  scorchinf^  ;  Lett,  saul -Lith,  saule)  shines  forth 
from  the  lap  of  the  dawns,  7.63.3.  and  as  a  ruddy  bird  6,J7,3 
traverses  the  space. 


1.  Our  sun  had  a  dark  blue  dwarf  companion,  as  there  are  about 
10  million  binaries  in  our  galaxy.  Binaries  constitute  more  than  one- 
fifth  of  all  stars.  Our  sun  has  about  35  p.  c.  hydrog;en.  The  rest  of 
the  hydrogen  has  been  converted  into  helium.  This  conversion  of 
hydrogen  into  helium  is  the  source  of  light  and  heat  of  the  sun.  The 
interior  of  the  sun  has  about  20  million  C.  temperature.  Only  1  p.  c. 
of  the  solar  material  consists  of  elements  of  heavy  weight  of  magnesium, 
alluminium,  sillicon.  iron,  gold,  uranium  etc.  While  the  earth  consists 
of  more  of  heavy  elements.  So  our  earth  could  not  have  originated 
from  the  solar  materials.  But  the  dark  blue  dwarf  by  condensation 
and  contraction  became  the  reservoir  of  an  immense  heat,  about 
30D00000}°C.  In  this  temperature,  all  manners  of  nuclear  transmission 
occur  with  great  rapidity.  The  hydrogen-converted  helium  becomes 
transmutted  into  elements  of  heavy  atomic  weight  as  silicon,  iron,  lead, 
uranium  etc.,  like  that  of  the  earth  and  other  planets.  Thus  becoming 
a  supernova,  it  exploded.  About  90  p.  c  of  the  gas  was  hurled 
rapidly  with  tremendons  force  into  a  great  distance  where  it  became 
a  white  dwarf  by  gradual  condensation.  During  the  last  dying 
stages  of  explosion,  about  10  p.  c.  of  the  puffed  out  clouds  of  gas 
remained  within  the  gravitational  pull  of  the  sun  by  the  force  of 
recoils  This  cloud  of  gas  spread  out  around  the  sun,  and  took  the 
form  of  rotating  circular  disk.  As  the  condensed  disk  began  to  assume 
axial  rotation,  it  broke  up  into  chunks  and  blobs.  The  chunks 
began  to  circle  round  the  sun  as  planets,  and  blobs  round  the  chunks 
as  planetary  moons.  The  earth  is  older  than  2^  billion  ye:ir3.  .According 
to  Hindu  Astronomy  the  earth  is  1,  922.  449,  048  years  old.  From  the 
lead  contents  of  uranite  of  Manitoba,  an  archaean  orogenic  belt,  1950 
million  years  can  be  calculated.  The  earth  was  called  Go  Prithivi, 
Zd.  Gaus,  Ge  or  Geia  of  the  Greeks,  Umma  of  the  IChattis,  Geb,  Mi  of 
the  Egyptians,  Maa-Ema  of  the  Finno-Ugrians,  Amba  of  the  Tamils, 
Amba   and  Ambika   of  the  Hindus. 

The  energy  generated  in  the  sun  and  the  stars  is  caused  by  the 
gradual  transformation  of  hydrogen  into  helium.  The  nuclear  trans- 
formation of  hydrogen  into  helium  is  known  to  set  free  2.10"^' 
calories  for  each  hydrogen  atom  utilized.  As  sun  liberates  iO-^ 
calories  per  second,  it  consumes  5"  10^"^  atoms  =■  803  million  tons  of 
hydrogen  per  second  -  2' lO^^  tons  ;  llO^^/siO^  -  1  I4'l0i*'  sec^S'lO^o 
years.  For  9  billion  years  the  sun  might  have  used  20  p  c.  of  its 
hydrogen.  It  is  known  that  co.'mic  matter  contains  55%  hydrogen.  44% 
helium  and  1%  other  elements.  Radioactive  Thorium  and  Uranium  238 
are     not     markedly    less     on    the    earth    than   other    heavy     elements 


84  THE  LITEEARr  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

2.  Soma  (Sin  ;  En-Zu- Amsu  ;  Egypt  Chan8u  =  Candra  ; 
Ijit  hy  Menu,  Lett.  Mene,  masculine  god,  married  to  the  sun 
which  is    feminine  j    Sin     was   the     Bab,  god    of    agriculture) 


like  Bismuth,  Mercury,  Gold.  The  half-life  period  of  Thorium  and 
Uraniam  238  is  14  billion  and  4^  billion  years  respectably.  The  fission- 
able isotope  of  Uranium  235,  constitutes  only  7%  of  the  main  common 
isotope  and  its  half  life  is  09  billion  years.  Since  the  amount  of  the 
fissionable  Uranium  235  is  cut  in  half  in  every  0'9  bilUon  years,  it 
must  have  taken  7  such  periods  =  6  billion  years  to  bring  it  down 
to   its   present   low   level  existence  on  the  earth. 

The  sun  =  Snrya  is  no  doubt  the  source  of  all  light,  energy,  heat, 
life  and  colors.  No  chlorophyl  and  carbo-hydrate  formation  is 
possible  without  solar  rays.  Even  coal  is  nothing  but  fossilized  plant. 
The  sun  is  the  exciter  and  stimulant  of  all  things-  Savitri,  Rv.  2,38,6. 

Dyavakshama,  Dyavabhumi,  Rodosi,  Dyava-prthivi,  are  the 
Heaven  and  the  Earth.  They  are  the  variegated  Cow  and  the  Bull 
with  excellent  semen  (rain)  :  Dhenum  ca  prshnim  vrishabham 
suretasam,  1,  160  3.  Widely  capacions  pair,  mighty  that  never 
fail— Father  and  Mother  protect  all  creations  :  uruvya  casa  mahini 
asushcata  pita  mata  ca  bhuvanani  rakshatah,  1,  160.  2. 

The  Earth's  crust  was  a  cold  mixture  of  iron  and  rock  and  stayed 
that  way  for  about  a  billion  year,  Gradually  radio  active  uranium, 
thorium  and  the  potassium  in  the  crust  gave  off  enough  heat  to 
melt  the  iron  which  flowed  into  the  interior  to  form  the  Earth's 
core,  the  lighter  floated  to  the  surface.  This  circulation  caused  the 
crust  to  winkle,  causing  the  land  masses  to  shift  and  slowing  the  Earth's 
spin  on  its  axis.  Thus  days  are  getting  longer  by  about  one  second  in 
every  200,003  years.  Earth's  inner  core  with  a  radius  of  800  miles  is 
solid  with  density  18  times  that  of  water,  made  of  iron,  nickel  and 
possibly  some  other  denser  materials ;  the  rest  of  the  central  core 
extending  to  2,200  miles,  from  the  centre  consists  of  a  liquid  form 
of  silicate  rock,  about  1 1  times  the  density  of  water.  The  Earth  is 
gradually  slowing  at  a  rate  that  the  length  of  the  day  is  increased 
about  Q.  01  second  in  a  century.  In  the  spring  the  earth  rotates  at 
a  slower  than  the  average  rate.  In  the  autumn  it  rotates  a  little  more 
quickly  than  usual.  As  a  result,  the  clocks  in  the  autumn  are  about 
0.  06  second  ahead  of  what  they  are  in  the  spring. 

The  interaction  between  the  Earth  and  the  Moon  is  markedly 
displayed  in  the  phenomenon  of  the  tidal  wave,  raised  by  the  Moon's 
attraction  on  the  oceans  of  the  earth.  Tidal  waves  running  around 
and  around  our  globe  encounter  resistance  in  the  form  of  the  conti- 
nents that  stand  in  the  way.  Tidal  frictions  will  lengthen  the  day 
by  about  T15W  ^^  ^  second  for  century  and  will  increase  the  length 
of  the  month  by  f  of  a  second  per  century,  besides  widening  the 
distance  between  the  Earth  and  the  Moon  by  five  inches  per  year. 
Dividing  the  present  distance  of  the  moon  of  239,000  miles  from 
the  earth  by  the  rate  of  recession  of  5  inches  per  year,  it  can  be 
calculated  that  about  4  billion  years  ago  the  queen  of  the  night  was  in 
close  embrace  with  the  earth,  perhaps  in  the  Pacific  region,  and  both  o£ 
them  rotated  together  in  7  hour's  time. 


A8TA0N0MT— SOMA — THE  MOON  85 

assumes  the  the  rays  of  the  sun  for  his  robe  (i.e.  the  moon- 
beams are  the  reflected  light  of  the  sun),  sjjinning  in  his 
movements,  9.  86.  32.  All  the  five  ancient  planets,  with  the  sun 
and  the  moon,  7  luminaries  — adityas  and  12  zodiac  constellations 
^ere  known  even  in  Rik  Vedic  period. 


2.  The  Moon  is  the  most  beautiful  object  of  the  night.  Soma 
married  27  star  daughters  iTara  ,  in  the  naked  eye  about  2000  stars 
are  visible  in  a  clear  night)  of  Daksha  (the  sky  god/, 
But  as  be  lingered  longer  in  the  mansion  of  Rohini  I'Pltiadcs)  ; 
according  to  the  Chinese  there  are  2i  siou  =  star  mansions  =  groups  of 
stars  ,  actually  the  moon  circles  round  the  earth  in  29  d,  12  h, 
44m,  2-78  s,  and  there  are  12-37  synodic  months.,  but  as  during 
this  time  the  earth  has  moved  about  30°  in  its  orbu,  the  true  or 
sideral  month  measured  with  respect  to  the  stars  is  27  d,  7  h,  43  m, 
11-57  s).  other  daughters  provoked  by  envy  and  zealosy.  complained 
against  the  favoritism  of  Soma  for  Rohini.  Daksha  in  anger  cursed 
Soma  with  consumption.  But  soma  explained  that  he  was  ordained 
to  make  this  monthly  round.  Daksha  said  that  consumption  will  not 
aflfect  his  health  ;  he  will  ever  remain  beautiful  and  charming  ;  but  he 
could  no  longer  remove  his  consumption  spots  ;  but  coming  to  Rv.  1.  24-9 
Satabhisaj  =  Zd.  Satavesa  ('who  has  a  hundred  remedies  =  Aquarius),  he 
becomes  the  full  moon  again,  and  his  praises  will  be  sung,  and 
his  worship  made  ;  Soma  was  supposed  as  reigning  over  the  entire 
universe  fsomain  visvasya  bhuvansya  r^jase  Rv.  9.  86.  36).  Atri  seems 
to  be  the  personification  of  the  New  Moon.  In  5.  40,  5  when 
the  sun  was  covered  with  darkness  by  Svarbhanu  (Ketu  =  Sumer-Kittu) 
Atri,  coming  out  of  his  dark  cave,  rescued  the  sun.  A  solar  eclipse  is 
only  possible  at  the  time  of  the  new  moon.  Kuhu  (in  Polynesia 
the  next  day  after  the  new  moon  is  called  I^uu).  Kali  is  the 
invisible  New  Moon.  Sinivali  was  the  growing  crescent  n:oon 
(quarter  moon)  ;  Gungu  the  half- moon  ;  Anumati  is  the  night  (Hth) 
before  the  full  moon  Raka  =  Poly  raka,  raa  =  Gk  Tyche  =  Rom 
Fortuna  on  a  moving  rudder,  the  erratic  goddess  of  love  and  prosperity 
is  the  Full  Moon.  The  fierce  heating  of  the  lunar  surface  rocks  by  day 
and  the  cooling  by  night  must  lead  to  an  alternate  contraction  and 
expansion  which  cause  small  bits  of  rocks  to  flake  away  from  the  surface. 
These  particles  of  dust  tend  to  work  their  way  to  th.^  lower  parts  of  the 
moon  where  they  have  accumulated  as  gigantic  drifts  that  cover  the 
underlying  craters.  Some  craters  might  have  been  caused  by  the  impact 
of  meteorites.  But  meteorites  could  not  usually  create  only  circular 
craters  which  are  usuilly  seen  on  the  lunar  surface.  The  solar  rays 
falling  upon  this  fine  white  dust  envelope  over  the  lunar  surface  make 
•the  refracted  light  so  pretty  of  the  lunar  beams.  The  mjon  lacks  oxygen, 
water  ;  temperature  flactuates  daily  between — 151°  and  100  C  =  -240°  to 
212°F.     Candra=Gk   kandaros  (bright). 

In  the  late  Roman  Egyptian  Marble  Plaque  there  are  two  circles  of 
12  mansions  each,  the  outer  circles  containing  the  signs  of  the  Greek 
Zodiac  and  the  inner  the  corresponding  signs  of  the  Egyptian  Zodiac, 
Aries  =  cat  ;  Taurus  =  jackal  ;  Gemini  -  serpent  ;  Cancer  =  scarab  ;  Leo  - 
ass  ;  Virgo  =  lion  ;  Libra  =  goat ;  Scorpio  -=  cow  ;  Sagittarius  -  falcon  ; 
•Capricorn  =  baboon  ;  Aquarius  =  ibis  ;  Pisces  =  crocodile. 


86  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

3.  Suparna  x,  86,  19;  1,  10  ^  11,  now  called  Budha,  is 
the  Baby  Nebo,  the  scribe  of  the  gods,  Hermes  of  the  Greeks, 
Mercury  of  the  Eomans,  the  messenger  of  the  gods,  was  tha 
bird  of  Vishnu  as  it  quickly  moves  round  the  sun. 

4.  Vena  (Venant  Yasb  :  Sukra)  "with  the  wings  of  gold, 
the  messenger  of  Varuna  (Uranos,  the  sky  god),  the  bird  flies  of 
the  region  of  Yama  (  Perseus),  x,  123.  6  •,  the  Vena  is  a  swift 
mover,  x,  123.8.  and  wanders  in  high  places,  x,  123.7. 

When  the  Mercury  is  between  the  Earth  and  the  sun,  the 
light  of  the  sun  falls  only  on  the  side  away  from  us  and  we 
see  only  a  dark  ball  across  the  solar  disk.  When  the  Mercury  is 
in  other  positions,  the  part  we  see  illuminated  may  range  from  a 
thin  crescent  like  the  wing  of  a  bird  to  almost  a  full  circle. 
Mercury  is  the  smallest,  speediest  and  most  elusive  of  the  planets. 
It  is  never  seen  except  occasionally  near  the  horizon  just  after 
sun  set  or  sun  rise,  and  even  then  it  is  frequently  dimmed  or 
obscured  by  the  haze  and  mists  near  the  horizon.  It  circles  round 
the  sun  in  88  days  at  the  speed  of  30  miles  a  second.  It  has 
no  satelite  of  its  own,  though  it  has  the  size  of  our  moon. 
Mercury  presents  the  same  face  to  the  sun,  being  held  by  its 
gravitational  grip,  as  the  moon  presents  the  same  face  to  the  earth. 
The  side,  perpetually  baked  by  the  fierce  sun,  has  lost  its  water 
and  atmosphere  ;  if  there  is  any  river,  it  is  of  molten  lead.  The 
elliptic  in  which  Mercury  moves  is  more  flattened  than  the  orbit 
of  any  other  planet  which  proves  the  Relativity  Theory.  Now  called  Budha 
after  Teut.  Odin=  Ang-Sax  Wodan  =  Rv.  Zd  Vata  =  Rom  Ventis  =  Ger 
Wut,  furious  storm  wind,  after  whom  Wednesday  has  been  named. 

Vena  is  the  Venus  planet  ;  Hathor,  goddess  of  love  and  beauty 
of  the  Egyptians  ;  Freya,  goddess  of  love  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  and 
after  whom  Fregas  daeg  =  Fryday  has  been  named  ;  Al-lat  or  Al 
Ouzza,  Athtar,  Ishtar  of  the  Semites,  daughter  of  Sin  (Moon)  as  the 
phases  of  the  Venus  resemble  those  of  the  moon  ;  as  the  morning 
star  Dilhat,  evening  star  =  Zib  Assyr.  Shimti,  Ashima=Pur.  Asima  ;  as  a 
morning  star  Anat\  she  is  goddess  of  war,  and  as  evening  star, 
goddess  of  love  ;  Phosphorus  or  Lucifer,  as  the  morning  star,  Hesperus 
as  evening  star  of  the  Greeks  ;  the  identity  of  the  two  bodies  is 
attributed  to  Pythagoras  in  sixth  century  B.  C.  ;  in  Lith  myths  as 
Devo  sunelei— sons  of  the  heaven,  the  morriing  and  evening  star 
— Asvinau  as  Venus  is  situated  between  the  Earth  and  the  sun  ; 
it  occasionally  passes  over  the  face  of  the  sun  just  as  Mercury 
does,  the  diameter  of  Venus  being  only  about  300  miles  less  than 
that  of  Earth.  The  transits  of  Venus  take  place  at  regular  intervals 
of  just  over  eight  years.  Like  our  Moon,  the  Venus  exhibits  different 
phases.  It  is  at  its  greatest  distance  from  the  Earth  when  full,  but 
its  greatest  brilliancy  occurs  at  about  36  days  before  and  after  it  is 
new  when  its  appearance  at  the  telescope  is  like  that  of  5  days  old 
crescent  moon.  When  the  Venus  is  just  in  the  centre  above  the 
crescent  moon,  it  is  the  sacred  Id  of  the  Islamis.  The  Veuns  completes  its 
revolution  in  225  days,  but  takes  20  days  to  rotate  on  her  axis 
at  the    rate    of    26     miles    a    second.     What  has  slowed   down   the 


ASTRONOMY— MARUTAH — MARS  87 

5.     Marutah- red  colored,  wander  over  the  sky.  8,  7.7,  Mara. 


rotation  ?  It  may  be  the  sun  exerts  a  huge  tidal  influence  on  the 
shifting  dust  of  the  Venus  ;  or  Mercury  may  once  been  a  satt-lite  of 
Venus.  The  intense  heat  of  the  sun  causes  small  particles  to  flake 
off  the  Venus  as  in  the  case  of  the  moon,  and  it  appears  that 
great  clouds  of  these  particles  rise  upwards  in  the  carbon  dioxide 
atmosphere  and  are  then  convicted  round  the  dark  side  of  the 
planet.  The  Venus  shines  with  dazzling  lusture  and  it  has  the  charac- 
teristic of  the  light  scattered  from  tine  white  dust  It  is  as  even- 
ing star  for  six  months,  and  brightest  in  the  later  two  months,  and 
morning  star  in  otlier  months  The  temperature  of  the  Venus  flactuates 
daily  between- 25°  and   110°C  =  -  13°  to  230°  F. 

Marutah  are  red-colored  and  wander  over  the  sky  (8  7  7.)  ; 
Ud  u  tye  antnapsavns  citrd  ydmebhir  Irate  vdsr,j  nd/ii  shnufta  divah 
=  the  planet  Mais,  the  Roman  god  of  war  (called  Marti,  Martis, 
Gk.  Ares,  Amorite  Marduk,  ancient  form  Martu,  Marut-ukku  - 
Kassite  Maruttas,  Rv.  5.46:2  Sardha  Mirutah  (the  troop  of  Maruts) 
is  the  Umbrian  Serpo  Martio.  Mars  is  at  a  greater  distance  than 
the  Earth  from  the  sun.  Mars  revolves  round  the  sun  in  687  days 
at  the  speed  715  miles  a  second,  which  is  about  l\  miles  a  second 
slower  than  the  earth.  It  rotates  over  a  tilted  23^°  at  24h,  37m. 
But  the  time  from  one  opposition  to  the  next  when  Mars  is 
suitably  situated  for  observation  is  780  days  when  tne  Earth  over- 
takes it  and  passes  it.  The  most  favourable  condition  occurs  every 
15th  year.  The  red  disk  of  Mars  is  visible  in  the  western  sky 
about  half  of  the  year,  and  as  a  morning  star  in  the  rest  rising 
about  three  hours  before  the  sun  rise.  Mars  has  two  tiny  moons — 
Phobos  and  Deimos.  two  of  the  five  sons  of  war  god  .Mars. 
Phobos,  less  than  20  miles  in  diameter  races  round  Mars  thrice 
a  day,  changing  from  new  moons  to  full  moons.  Deimos  remains 
about  the  horizon  of  Mars  for  nearly  3  days  without  setting  at  all, 
and  during  that  time  it  goes  through  all  its  phases  from  new  to 
full  moon  twice  over.  No  oxygen  can  be  detected  on  Mars.  Green 
markings  change  due  to  growth  and  decay  of  plants,  similar  to 
rock  lichens  which  require  little  moisture  and  survive  in  low 
temperature.  The  temperature  of  Mars  varies  daily  between— 69°  and 
2y°C  =  -  92°  to  84°F.     Now  called  Maugala. 

In  May-June  when  Sagittarius  appears  in  SE  sky.  Virgo  is  in  the 
centre  of  the  ecliptic,  that  is,  overhead,  slightly  in  the  south,  and 
Gemini  in  the  N\V  sky.  Vakdevi  (Virgo)  rights  for  people  and 
stretches  the  bow  of  Rudra  'x,  125  6).  So  the  queen  of  tlie  heaven 
(Devi  Ristri),  is  not  only  in  eternal  copulation  iGemnii=Jug.\la - 
jugalis,  Roman  god  of  engagement,  Mithutia)  with  Vrisha  Vnhana 
Rudra,  they  have  two  sons.  Kartika  =  Pleiades,  and  another  Vermillion 
hued  Ganesa,  as  Aldebaran  for  its  reddish  color  is  called  Rohini, 
and  the  two  horns  of  the  bull  seen  upside  down  becomes  the  tusks  of  an 
elephant.  So  the  queen  of  the  heaven  is  not  only  goddess  of  love 
and  fertility  (Preml  =  Roman.  Prema  presided  over  coition  .  in  Babylonia, 
the  Istar  is  depicted  as  armed  with  bow,  and  arrows,  and  protecting  and 
fighting  for  her  devotees,  sometimes  riding  over  a  lion,  sometimes  one 
ot  her  feet  being  placed  on  the  bead  of  a  prisoner  of  war. 


88  THE  LITEBART  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDI  A 

6.  Brihaspati  =  Jupiter,  shines  brightly  golden  ruddy 
coloured  light,  5,  43.  12. 

7.  Sakuna  (9,  86  11)  =  Saturn  with  his  golden  wings  hastens, 
the  envoy  of  Varana  to  the  region  of  Yama,  x,  123.6. 

Jupiter  appears  as  a  bright  flattened  disk,  crossed  by  series  of 
irregular  shaped  dark  greyish  belts  with  a  large  red  spot  between  the 
belts  south  of  its  equator.  It  has  eleven  moons.  Because  Jupiter 
shines  in  bright  silvery  lustre,  unsurpassed  by  any  other  than  the  Venus, 
and  it  can  appear  at  any  part  of  night  and  when  near  opposition  as  a 
spectacular  beacon  it  dominates  the  midninght  heaven,  it  was  called 
Deva-guru  -  the  leader  of  the  luminaries.  Brikaspaii  is  bright  {i,  190.1) 
like  a  meteor  (Rv.  x,  68.  11  Ulkam -=  Rom.  Vulkan).  Five  to  ten 
baby  planets  like  Ceres  were  formed  between  the  orbits  of  Mars  and 
Jupiter.  Two  of  them  happened  to  collide,  causing  numerous  frag- 
ments ;  gradually  coUissions  became  more  frequent  until  thousands  and 
thousands  of  asteroids,  rotating  in  3  to  9  years,  tiny  flying  mountains, 
known  to  exist  in  this  region,  were  formed.  The  fireoalls  that  flash 
through  the  earth's  atmosphere  and  drop  as  meteorites,  are  but  the 
smallest  numbers  of  the  huge  family  of  fragments,  created  in  this 
asteroid  ring.  Conical  meteorite  stone  was  worsh'pped  in  Phoenicia  as 
Baetyla,  generating  symbol  of  Baal,  in  Mecca  as  Kabba  black  stone, 
Inspite  of  its  great  bulk  Jupiter  spins  on  its  axis  in  9  h,  55  m.  at  the 
rate  of  8.1  miles  per  second.  But  it  takes  11,86  years  for  Jupiter  to 
finish  a  trip  round  the  sun  on  its  long  orbit,  Baraha  Mihira  mentions 
that   one  year  of  Brihaspati  was  almost    equal   to  our  12    years. 

7.  Sakuna  is  now  called  Sani,  Roman  Sater,  Saturn,  To  the  naked 
eye.  Saturn  shines  with  a  dull  straw-yellow  light.  Saturn  wears  golden- 
hued  triple  rings,  composed  of  millions  of  tiny  particles  that  are  the 
remnants  of  a  satelite  which  approached  too  close  and  was  shattered 
into  fragments.  Saturn  has  also  nine  moons.  It  takes  Saturn  29  5 
years  to  spin  round  the  sun.  Saturn  was  regarded  by  the  Romans  as  the 
agriculture  and  harvest  god.  He  was  represented  as  an  old  man  with 
a  sickle  for  reaping  harvest.  17-21  December  commenced  Saturnalia 
with  great  rejoicings.  From  19-21  began  the  festival  of  Opalia,  in 
honor  of  Ops  (opulence),  wife  of  Saturn,  with  great  merriments,  sexual 
license  and  orgies.  On  Dec.  22  one  received  gifts  of  terracotta  dolls  and 
toys  (Sigilla),  and  called  Sigillaria.  On  25  Mithra  festival  began  with 
feasts,  drinking  and  debauchery,  as  the  birthday  of  the  unconquering 
sun  which  marked  the  lengthening  of  the  days.  Then  commenced  the 
festival  of  Janus  (Ganesa).  Kalendae  Januarii,  when  boys  and  girls 
received  gifts  on  this  New  Year  Day,  called  Juvenilia  and  everyone 
exchanged  gifts.  Because  Saturn  (Baby.  Ninurta)  was  the  last  of  the 
planets  known  to  the  ancients,  other  planets  Uranus,  Neptune  and 
Pluto  being  only  discovered  with  telescope,  Saturn  was  called  by  the 
AngloSaxous.  Old  Father  Time,  bringing  sickness  and  distress,  la 
Babylonia  Saturn  was  represented  by  Ninib,  regarded  as  god  of 
pestilence.  Saturn  with  its  rings  and  satelites  is  25.  33  times  as  bulky 
as  the  earth.  The  mass  of  the  system  is  1/3497.  64  as  great  as  that  of 
the  sun  and  not  1/3501.  6  as  now  reckoned. 

The  sun  enters  into  Gemini  on  May  22  and  remains  up  to  June  21. 


ASTRONAMT— ZJDIACS  89 

Zodiacs  =  Dvadasa8ya  Rituiu  7.  103.  9  •=  12  cyclic  yearly 
order.  1.  Asvinau  8.2.14  represents  the  first  of  the  zodiac  cons- 
tellation Aries,  Mesham  niahaya  Rv.  1.52.1  =  Kam. 

Adltyas  (2.  27.  l)  =  Zd.  Amesha  Spenta  =  Lith.  svente-Skt.  svanta- 
auspicious  luminaries,  particularly  planets.  Mitra==Mithra  =  Sumerian 
Issaru  (Isvara)  =  tl)e  vernal  sun;  Varuna  =  Moon;  Aryaman  =  Keltic 
Eremon  =  Mars;  Bhaga  =  Slav.  Bogu  =  Gk.  Bagaios  =  Lith.  Bagatos  -  Zd. 
Bagha=Arm  Bhaga-van  =  Jupiter  ;  Tuvi-Jiti  (power-horn -Saturn - 
Babyl  Kaivanu  ;  Daksha  =  ZJ.  Asa  Vahista  =  Vasista  -  Goth  hatista- 
best)  =  Starry  Firmament,  including  Mercury;  .Anca  =  Venus,  Cal»iri- 
Kabeiri,  seven  planets,  worshipped  by  th?  Phoenicians"  Gk-  Kaheiroi, 
certain  beneficient  deities  =  Kubera,  god  of  Wealth. 

1.     The   brightest  stars  of  Aries— Hamal  and   Sheratan  are  still   called 
in   India  Asvinau,  and  as  they    become  promment    in   the    NID   sky    early 
in    the     evening,     the     month    is     called    Asvina,     On    May,    15.    Aries 
appears    in  the   morning  sky    at  4.  30.     The   sun    enters    into     Aries    on 
March  22   and  remains    within   it   upto    April    20  ;    so   remains    invisible 
during    this     period,     Amum  =  Amon  =  Amen      Ra,      the     chief  of    the 
Egyptian     pantheon   of     Thebes     was     either    ram-headcd   or    ram   was 
sacrificed  in  his  honor  ;  the  Veda  is  still  recited  with  Om  in  the  beginning 
in  his  honor.      In  Babylonia,  the  first  of  the  year  was  ciUed  Sam,    because 
a  lamb    was  sacrificed    to   celebrate  the    New  Year.     The    name    Asvinau 
might     have     originated   from    Babylonian     Sivanu,     meaning      Pair    or 
Twins,     name     of   the     third     month,     representing      the     constellation 
Gemini.     According     to     Gk.      myths.    Dioskouroi     which      represented 
Gemini,  like   the    Asvins.   used    to    ride   on    white     horses    (leokopoloi). 
"You    (Asvinau*    filled   from   the    hoof    of     your  vigorous    steed,    as  if 
from   a  cask,   a  hundred   jirs  of  wine"    1.  116.7.    Pegasus    is    i\\Q  yiying 
winged   korse\    just    west  _pf    Aries.     And    at    the    foot    of  Pegasus  is  the 
Amphora   of  Aquarius     (Aph  =  U3ha  =  Savitri  =  Sarasvati).     Thus   Asvins 
on    his    flying  horse   followed   Ushas  (8.  5.  2),    sometimes    encouraged  by 
Savitri    (1.  34  10;  =  Subigus,   Roman    god  of   wedding   night. 

Thy  great  birth,  O  horse,  is  to  be  glorified  ;  for  thou  hast  the 
wings  of  an  eagle  and  the  limbs  of  the  deer  (1,  163-1).  It  seems 
with  the  entry  of  the  sun  into  Aries,  early  in  the  spring,  the  New 
Year  commenced,  and  the  praises  of  Asvins  were  sung  in  a  feastal 
mood.  Asinus  (ass)  was  the  totem  of  Roman  Asinius  gens.  In  Lithuanian 
mytholo2y  Devo  sunelei  (Lith.  Goth  sunus  =  Russ.  suin  -  Ger  sohn  =  Skt. 
sunue  =  God's  sons,  the  morning  and  evening  starst  represented  the  Venus. 
Asvins    are  invoked  morning  and  evening,  rf.  22-14  ;  x,  .■)9.  1  ;  x,  140-4. 

Vedanga  Jyotisha  reckons  the  luni-solar  year  of  366  days  ;  Surya 
Siddhanta  of  365.25875  days  which  is  larger  than  the  mean  value  of 
the  tropical  yearly  .01614  days.  Lunation  is  the  period  taken  by  the 
moon  to  pass  from  one  conjunction  with  the  sun  'new  moon)  to  the  next 
conjunction.  This  is  found  to  be  variable  from  29-3055d  to  29  S228d, 
mean  9  530588.  Lunar  year  of  12  lunations  is  354-3671d  =  354d  8h  48m 
37s,  falling  short  of  the  solar  year  by  10.875 Id.  The  solar  year  is  the 
period  in  which  the  sun  moves  from  the  vernal  equinox  to  the  vernal 
equinox  again  365-2 425d  =  365d  5h  48m  497s  =  365^d,  causing  a 
•  difference   of  additional    11  minutes,  making  an  error  of  one  day  in  3300 


90  THE  LITERAET  HISTOBY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

2.  Brishava~l,118.18 ;  Zd.  Gaush  is  the  Taurus.  It  is 
the  vernal  equinoctial  Apis  Bull  of  the  Egyptians,  which  is 
depicted  as  equally  black  and  white,  the  Golden  Calf  (Ex  3'i). 

3.  Yama  and  Yami  (x.lO)  =  Gemini  (Fr.  ]'umeau  =  Skt 
yamak),  meaning  twins  ;  or  pairs  like  Sumerian  Sivanu,  Egyptian 
wind  god  Shu  with  his  consort  Tefnut,  Jugala  (  Rom.  Jugalis 
leads  the  courting  to  engagement )  Mithuna,  Gk.  Dioscuri, 
Eoman  Liber  and  Libera,  Yaw-Anat,  Kama  (Gk.  Komas  —  Eom 
Comus,  another  name  of  Erosl-Eati  (Gk.  Erato),  Hara  (Gk. 
Aresl-Parvati  (Pertunda  presiding  over  first  coition),  Uma  (in 
Khatti  votive  relief  at  Boghaskeai,  there  is  a  broad  hipped 
female  with  a  child  called  Umma,  Sabaean  Umma=-mother)-- 
Mahesvara  in  eternal  copulation  as  Ardha-Narisvara. 

years.  In  Rv  1.155  6  Vishnu  (the  Sun)  like  a  rounded  wheel  sets  in 
swift  motion  4  (vernal  equinox  to  summer  solstice  ;  s  s  to  antumnal 
equinox;  ae  to  winter  solstice;  ws  to  ve)  90  (days)  =  560  days,  nearly 
65-  days  short.  Egyptian  year  was  of  365d  divided  into  12  months  of 
30  days  each  ;  5  days  extra — epagomena — were  dedicated  as  a  new  year 
festival  at  the  heliacal  rising  of  the  Sirius— Sothi  when  the  Nile  blood 
commenced.  But  a  little  more  than  ^d  shortage  in  a  year  has  a 
cummalative  effect  in  changing  the  festival  days  as  seasons  ;  so  there  was 
a  Sothic  cycle  period  in  every  1461  years  as  the  Lunar  Cycle  in  19  years. 
Ribhus  slumbering  for  12  days  (dvadasa  dyun)  with  the  sun  directed 
the  streams,  and  waters  filled  the  low  lands,  and  fields  became  fertile 
and  plants  occupied  arid  lands  (4.33.7),  and  then  awakened  by  the  dog 
(Svanam  :  l,l6l,13  =  Cannis  Major  of  whom  Sirius  is  the  brightest  star). 
This  intercalary  12  jays  of  Ribhus  may  be  appropriate  in  a  leap 
lunisolar  year.  That  the  Ribhus  had  connection  with  the  moon  may 
be  inferred  by  his  making  drinking  chalice  (the  moon  as  the  amrita 
food)  for  the  Asuras  (Rv.  l,110  3i.  The  Babylonian  began  the  day  at 
the  sunrise,  which  the  Hindus  perhaps  learnt  from  them  ;  the  Jews  and 
the  Greeks  at  the  sun  set ;  the  Egyptians ,  and   the   Romans   at   midnight. 

Zeus  raped  Europa  in  the  form  of  a  bull,  and  raised  the  bull  to  the  sky. 
It  is  the  Baby.  Ninib,  and  Nandi  Brisha  of  the  Hindus,  depicted  in  a 
Mahenjodaro  seal.  Babylonian,  Median,  and  Susan  New  Year  took  place 
like  the  Persian  Nowrose  on  the  spring  equinox  =  Slav.  Vesna,  goddess  of 
the  springs  Vasanta.  Atharva  Vtda  (19.  1.  3)  mentions  that  New  Year 
with  Krittika  (Pleiades  in  Taurus),  which  took  place  2000  years  ago  on 
March  21.  The  sun  enters  into  Taurus  on  April  21  and  remains 
therein  up  to  May  21.  This  sun's  entry  was  symbolized  by  Mithra 
killing  a  bull,  and  feasting  on  it  as  a  new  year's  festival,  as  the  bull 
becomes  invisible.  The  Hindu  New  Year  also  begins  on  that  day  and 
the  month  is  called  Baislka  after  the  Bisaka  star-Zuben  el  Genubi 
-  in  Libra.  The  important  star  groups  in  Tauru?  are  Pleiades 
(Kirticka,  called  also  Matrika  after  Polynesian  Matariki),  and 
Aldebaran  (Rohini),  called  also  Hyades,  according  to  Greek  legends 
seven  nymphs,  according  to  the  Hindus,  wives  of  seven  Rishis  who 
were  seduced  by  Agni. 

In  Babylonia  huge  stone  bulls,  sometimes  winged  (representing  also 
Aquila;    and     human-headed  ;  at    Susa     and   Persepolis    bull    beads   on 


ASTRONOMY — MANDUKA— OAKCER  91 

4.  Manduka  is  sometimes  hidden  in  rains  though 
Adviiryus  (  planets  )  shine  throur![hout  12  monthly  orders, 
Rv.  7.103.  8-9.  Manduka  was  called  in  Bahylonia  Turtle 
(Pulnkka).  in  Ecfypt  Scarabr-.eus  Beetle  ;  in  Puranas  qb  Kurina 
(turtle)  ;  Karkata  =  crab  =  Cancer. 

5.  Pitris  are  situated  in  the  centre  of  the  he&ven  ;  Pitris 
are  the  «uiding  spirit  of  Macrha  (X.  15.  14i.  the  Re^uluH,  the 
brightest  star  in  Leo,  Ir.  Miyan,  the  centre  of  Kex,  Babylonian 
Sharru,  the  King. 

the  capitals  of  columns  like  those  of  Asokan  pillars.  And  as  the 
Scorpio  rises  in  the  SE  sky,  after  its  brilliant  star  Aiitares.  it  called 
JeshtA,  the  month  is  called  Jaistha  ;  other  stars  are  Anuradh  i  in  tha 
head,    and    Mula   in  the  tail. 

The  rising  in  the  evening  of  the  naked  eye  cluster  of  Pleiades 
heralded  in  Babylonia  the  coming  of  the  winter  solstice  of  a  year  of  365 
days  in  700  B-C  when  the  intersection  of  the  ecliptic  with  the  celestial 
equator  was  in  Aries.  The  Chinese  cycle  of  19  years  of  365}  days  to 
which  235  lunar  synodic  months  of  29.53  days— the  average  between 
successive  new  and  full  moons. 

Life  appeared  on  the  earth  when  its  atmosphere,  containing  as  at 
present  a  mi.^ture  of  o.Kygen,  nitrogen  and  carbon,  had  in  addiii  >n  also 
methanes,  ammonia  and  hydrogen  as  found  in  the  atmosphere  of  Jupiter 
and  Saturn.  Under  the  influence  of  strong  solar  radiation  beating  down 
on  the  top  of  this  primitive  atmosphere,  amino-acids— glycine,  alanines  — 
were  formed —complex  organic  compound  of  protein  chain— the  basic 
of  life's  growth. 

Manduka  is  sometimes  hidden  in  rains  though  Advaryus  (planets) 
shine  throughout  12  monthly  orders  (7.  103,  S-9 1.  Manduka  w.is  called 
in  Babylonia  Turtle  (PuUikku),  in  Egypt,  Scarabaeus  Beetle  ;  in 
Puranas  as  Kurma  ;  Karkata  =  Crab  =>  Cancer  The  sun  enters  into 
Cancer  on  June  21,  and  stays  there  up  to  July  21,  the  day  of  summer 
solstice  (Ratha  Yitra).  Cancer  has  no  bright  star  except  the  Bee -Hive 
=  Praespe  called  Pushya. 

As  it  coincides  with  the  appearance  of  Sagittarius  and  its  bris;ht 
star  group  is  called  Kaus  Australis  =  Asara,  the  month  is  known  as  .Asara. 

The  Hindus  still  make  their  offerings  to  the  Pitris  when  the  new 
moon  is  in  Leo.  -  Baby  Khumbaba  =  Ch  Horse  =  . Arab.  Gazelle.  Leo  is 
the  Man-Lion  of  the  Khattis,  Zd  Nairyo  Sangha  which  became 
Nara-Simha  of  the  Hindus;  it  is  the  Sphinix  of  the  Egyptians.  The 
sun    stays    in    Leo  =  Simha    (Tib.    Singe)  from   July  24    upto    .August   23. 

At  this  time  Aquarius  appears  in  E  sky.  .As  Aquarius  has  ^no 
brilliant  star,  its  place  is  taken  by  Aquila  =  Svena  =  Zl  Svena  Vast 
4.  1  =  the  vulture  with  outstreched  wings  of  the  Babylonians  and  Hawk  of 
the  Egyptians  =  Garuda  of  the  Hindus  =  the  double  headed  Jlying  eagle 
of  the  °Khattis.  From  its  brilliant  star  Altair,  called  i^rfivanl,  the 
month  is  called  Sravana. 

Because  the  Lion  and  Eagle  are  in  opposite  colure  in  this  Soli- 
lunar  system,  the  winged  lion  =  Griffin  statues  in  Babylonia  are  common. 


92  THE  LITEEART  HISTOET  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

6.  Rastri  (X,125\  the  Queea  of  the  Heaven  =  Ishtar  of 
Babylonia.  Isis,  called  also  Maat  of  Egypt,  Ma  or  Uma  of  the 
Khattia,  is  the  Virgo,  riding  over  Leo.  Magnamater  of  the 
Phrygians  having  lions  as  her  carrier — Simharatha  Isa  =  Durga 
of  the  Hindus.  Egyptian  goddess  of  justice  held  on  her  head  the 
scales  to  weigh  the  souls  of  departed  men  in  the  judgemeat 
hall  of  Osiris.  The  sun  enters  into  Libra  on  Sept  22,  the 
equinoctial  point  v^hen  days  and  nights  are  of  equal  length. 
Libra  is  the  extension  of  the  Virgo  and  the  ancient  Egyptian 
rightly  depicted  Isis  Maat  with  a  scale  on  her  head.  It  is 
called  now  Tula  =  Balance. 

The  sun  enters  into  Virgo  on  August  24  and  stays  within  iL  up  to 
September  22.     At  this  time  Sagittarius  is  overhead. 

Pisces  (Mina)  rises  in  the  eastern  sky  after  its  bright  star  Formalhaut 
called  Bhadrapada,  the  month  is  called  Bhadra. 

Egyptian  Maat,  goddess  of  Justice,  held  on  her  head  to  the  scales  to 
weigh  the  souls  of  departed  men  in  the  judgment  hall  of  Qsiris.  The 
sun  enters  into  Libra  on  Sept  22,  the  equinoctial  point  when  the  day 
and  night  are  of  equal  length.  Libra  is  the  extension  of  Virgo,  and  the 
ancient  Eayptian  rightly  depicted  Isis  Maat  with  a  scale  on  her  head  ; 
it  is  called  Tula  in  India. 

The  sun  enters  into  Scorpio  on  Oct.  2+  and  remains  therein  up  to 
Nov  22.  In  Scorpio  there  is  a  bright  star  called  Antares  =  the  rival  of  Ares 
=  Mars.  called  Jesta,  from  whose  appearance  in  the  SE  sky,  the  month  is 
called  Jaistha.  As  at  that  time  Gemini  ^Mithuna)  appears  in  NE  sky, 
it  is  Agrayana,  the  New  Year  month. 

The  sua  enters  into  Sagittarius  on  Nov.  23  and  remains  there  up  to 
Dec.  22.  At  that  time  rises  in  NE  sky  Taurus.  Taurus  has  bright  star  groups 
Pleiades  (Kirtika)  and  Aldebaran.  For  the  appearance  of  Kirtika,  the 
month  is  called  Kartika. 

The  Sumerian  goddess  of  love  has  been  found  in  a  baked  clay 
relief.  She  is  a  nude  half-smiling  lovely  maiden  with  firm  globular 
breasts,  fine  nose  and  earrings.  She  is  winged  with  snake  headdress  and 
birds'  feet  and  is  standing  upon  two  reclining  lions.  In  her  hands  she 
holds  two  rods  There  are  two  standing  owls  by  the  sides  of  the  lions 
(ILN  June  13,  1936).  Anahita_has  a  bundle  of  rods  (Zd.  baresman  = 
Skt.  barhis)  in  her  hands.  'k.^\\\\^  Madhu  (OSlav  medu  =»  Kelt,  med  = 
O  Ger.  metu  =  Gk.  methyj  Ka^^  whose  whip  is  honeyed  (Av.  9.  1). 
Artemis  had  owls  in  her  temple  ;  and  youths  were  flogged  on  their 
buttocks  to  rouse  their  sexual  ardor  and  libido.  Asvins  are  also  madhu- 
kasa. 

Twelve  are  the  fellies  (pradhyas  =  months),  three  are  the  naves 
(nabhyani  =  seasons),  360  are  the  spokes  (sakam  =  days)  of  the  the  year 
(cakram  1.164.48).  Savilri  shines  with  the  golden  rays  of  the  morning 
sun  (Sfirya  rasmir  harikesah-X,  139.1).  By  sun's  rays,  Soma  juice  is 
fremented  ;  hence  the  marriage  of  Snrya's  daughter  with  Soma  IX.  1.6. 
Savitri  is  the  progenitor  of  the  world  (bhuvanasya  prajipatih  4.53.2). 
Multi  colored  Gandharva  (Zd  Ganderwa  Yt  5.37  ;  Gk  Iris,  formed  by 
the   refraction   of  and   reflection   of  sun   rays   or  moon  beams  falling  on 


ASTRONOMY— VISVARUPA-  SCORPIO  98" 

8.  Visvarupa  is  three-headed  and  seven-rayed  (tri-airsha- 
nam  and  sapta-rasmin  X,  8.8),  now  Brichika=  Scorpio. 

water  drops — apsaras  =  apsva  apyayosha  X,  10,4 --water  nymphs  >  is  the 
measurer  of  airs  mid  space  X,  139  5.  Apsaras  holding  on  her  lap  as  a 
wife  supports  in  high  heaven  her  lover  who  in  the  pleasant  y(jni  moves 
pleasantly  =  apsara  jaram  upasishmiyana  yosha  bibharti  parame  vyoman 
carat  priyashya  yonishu  priyah  san  X.  123  5.  Water  nymphs  are  found 
in  Keltic,  Slav  and  FU  myths.  Asvin's  car,  driven  by  asses  1.1 16  7)  had 
three  wheels,  as  one  of  the  wheels  was  lost  in  a  race  when  coming  to 
the  wedding  of  Snrya  and  Soma  X,  8o.l5,  In  Lilh.  myths,  the  moon 
was  punished  by  Perkunes  =  Parjanya,  the  storm  and  thunder  god,  for 
deserting  his  wife,  the  sun,  and  wedding  her  youthful  daughter,  Devo 
dukryte  (god*s  daughter)  who  asks  her  mother  where  to  wash  away  her 
blood  stained  garment  (defloration  marks)  who  reprimands  her  for 
her  meselliance. 

The  densities  of  planets  :  Mercury  5  ;  Venus  4.4  ;  Earth  4.4  ;  Mars 
3.96  ;  Moon  3.3.  This  variation  can  be  explained  by  a  diflference  in 
the  iron  content  of  these  bodies  and  the  silicate  that  has  evaporated.  A 
planet  that  has  lost  much  of  its  silicate  would  have  proportional  more 
iron  than  one  what  has  lost  less.  If  the  Earth  was  liquid  we  would 
expect  less  iron  and  less  silica  in  its  outer  parts.  Mars  which  closely 
resembles  the  Earth  contains  30  p.c.  of  iron  and  nickle  weight*  and 
the  composition  of  Mars  is  nearly  uniform  through.  That  means  that 
Mars  was  never  molten.  If  there  is  iron  in  the  mantle  of  the  Earth, 
it  may  be  sifting  about  50,000  tons  every  second  to  the  core.  Thus  it 
would  take  500-1000  million  years  to  form  the  metalic  core  of  the 
Earth.  And  this  is  changing  the  moment  of  inertia  of  the  Earth. 
That  is  the  Earth  is  not  speeding  up,  but  slowing.  The  day  is  increasing 
in  length  by  about  one  or  two  thousands  o<"  a  second  per  day  per  century. 
Some  say  that  as  water  of  the  ocean  being  slowly  transferred  to  the 
icecaps  of  Greenland  and  Antarctica,  this  process  may  account  for  the 
lengthening  of  the  day.     Earth's  temperature  ranges  from— 59'  to  60'C. 

Egyptians  fixed  their  year  of  365  days.  The  Egyptian  day  hegan  at 
dawn  at  a  later  period,  the  Babylonian  reckoning  with  the  evening. 
The  Babylonians  reckoned  their  month  from  the  New  Moon  •.  Egyptians 
their  month  from  the  morning  when  the  old  crescent  was  no  more  visible. 
The  lunar  year  is  corrected  by  the  rise  of  Sirius,  as  among  the  Masai, 
Wachagga  and  Loango.  The  rise  of  Sirius- Egypt.  Sothis- which 
coincided  with  the  Nile  flood  was  the  opener  of  the  year.  The  Roman 
day  was  from  san-rise  to  sun-set,  divided  into  12  horae— hours  ;  the 
civil  day  of  course  began  at  midnight.  Ides  =  full  moon  day.  In 
Caesar's  calendar,  the  year  was  divided  into  8  periods  -  two  solstices 
-Burma  and  Solstimum  ;  two  equinoxes  of  Vernum  and  Autumni  ;  and 
the  beginings  of  spring  (Feb.  9j,  summer  (May  U),  autumn  ^Aug.  11) 
and  winter  (Nov.  11). 

The  Archer  from  a  Babylonian  Boundary  Stand  and  the  Egyptian 
Zodaic  of  Dender-a  winged  centaur,  drawing  the  bow,  with  a  double 
head,  one  human,  the  other  of  animal,  possibly  dog  and  a  double  tail, 
one  of  a  horse,  the  other  a  scorpion.  In  Babylonia  the  penis  is  erect 
and  in  front  of  which  is  scorpion   with  two    extended   arms  to  grasp  it. 


94  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

9.  Rudra  (Lat.  rubra -Fr  rouge  =  reddish)  is  the  boar  of 
the  sky,  reddish,  gleaming,  1,  114.5.  Rudra  carries  bows  and 
arrowB  { dhanavanhaji, '2,bd,l0.  Rudra*s  bow  is  firm  and  strong 
with  swiftly  flying  shafts,  X,49,l.  For  these  reasons,  Eudra 
is  called  Dhanu=  Sagittarius. 

Other  Vedic  Constellations:  Pushan  (Gk.  Pan  =  Rom 
Fannus)  appears  early  in  the  morning  with  Vayu  (Aractarus  in  Bootes 
at  4  30  on  April  14,  in  N  sky.  Pushan'-i  golden  ship  (Argo  Navis)  is  in  the 
heavenly  ocean  (Milky  Way)  on  an  embassy  to  Surya  (6.58.3).  Pushan 
is  provided  with  a  goat  (aja  1.162.  2-3).  i'«5/^rt«  as  a  charioteer  guides 
through  firmament  the  golden  wheel  of  hero's  car  (6.  56.  3),  Pushan  is 
Auriga  (Gk.  auros  =  swift;  ager  =  to  drive,  swift-driver,  charioteer)  with 
goad  (6.5S.2).  The  Greeks  conceived  Auriga  with  the  configuration  of  a  man 
in  a  more  or  less  sitting  posture  with  a  she  goat  and  kids  in  his  left  hand 
and  a  bridle  in  his  right.  Its  bright  star  Capella  (Brahma  Hridaya) 
means  a  she-goat;  while  Haedi  =  kids.  Auriga  appears  in  NE  sky  in 
September  and  disappears  in  N  sky  in  August.  AM  Budhnya  (X,  65,11) 
is  Cetus  =  the  Dragon  of  the  Deep  =  Hippopotamus  of  Anc  Egyptians. 

Sagittarius  became  the  god  of  War,  and  later  supreme  god  of  Assyrians 
as  Assur,  of  the  Achaemenians  as  Ahura  Mazda.  Both  Assur  and  Ahura 
Mazda  had  streamers  on  their  body,  symbolizing  the  wings  of  Aquila,  just 
north  of  Sagittarius,  and  the  waist  feeing  enclosed  in  a  ring,  and  holding 
another  ring  on  the  right  hand,  as  if  bestowing  loyalty,  simbolizing  Corona, 
north  of  it.  Assur  on  the  standard  of  Sargon  II  (722-705  B  C.)  has  the 
figure  of  an  Archer  on  a  galloping  Bull.  In  the  list  of  Assyrian  gods,  Assura 
Mazas  is  found.  Perhaps  from  this  Assura  (Elamite  Ahura)  Mazas  =  Asura 
Medasa  (the  Wise  Lord),  Ahura  Mazda  became  the  Achaeraenian  vidva 
=  all  knowing  sumpreme  god,  as  described  in  Zend-Avesta  =  Skt.  chanda 
upastha  =  chanting  hymns.  In  Rv.  1,134,1  ;  5,85,5,  it  is  Asura. 
"O  Varuna  you  are  the  lord  of  all,  O  Asura,  over  gods  and  men  (Rv. 
2,27.10).  Asura  lords  over  gods  ;  commands  of  Varuna  are  inviolable 
(Av.  1,  10.1).  Sagittarius  became  known  as  Artemis  of  the  Greeks,  armed 
with  bow  and  arrows  ;  Set  of  the  Egyptians.  Set  is  mounted  on  a 
bull,  in  one  hand  grasping  the  lightning — the  flashing  trident  and  on  the 
other,  a  triangular  bow  resting  on  his  right  shoulder  ;  an  antelope  prances 
beside  him  Stag  was  the  sacred  animal  of  Khatti  goddess  Rutash.  Set 
was  the  destructive  sand  storm  of  Egyptian  mid  summers.  Likewise 
Rudra  (from  Skt.  rudra  =  fierce  sun  =  Lat,  rudere  =  Lith  raudas  =  OSlav. 
rude).  0  Rudra,  thunder-wielder  (vajra-vaho  =  lightning  fork  =  trident), 
transport  us  from  troubles  to  security  (svasti  2  33.5).  Rudra  has  a  potent 
remedy  Jalash  (Av.  6,57  2).  After  terrible  and  devastating  summer  heat, 
there  are  sand  and  thunder  storms,  accompanied  by  cooling,  refreshing  and 
fertilizing  Jalasha  (Lat.  gelu  =  Fr.  grele  =  Ger.  hugel  =  hailsK  As 
Ophiuchus  is  just  above  Sagittarius,  Rudra  is  called  bhujanga-dhara. 
Ophites  regarded  serpents  as  a  symbol  of  passion,  healing,  immortality 
and  wisdom.  Lightning  fork  trident  (trisula)  represented  the  erect  penis 
in  the  centre  and  two  testicles  on  both  sides.  Rain  symbolized  semen 
with  w^hich  as  Uranos  (Varuna)  =  sky  god  )  by  his  close  embrace  of  Ge 
(Go-prithivi,  4,41,5;  X.  101,9;  X,  133.7  =  Zd.  Gaus  urva  =  Lat  arvum 
=  Lith.  ariu  =  Skt.  urvara  =  Fertile  Earth  =  Earth  Mother)  fructified 
her,  so  Rudra  Siva  impregnated  Uma   the  queen  of  the    heaven  and 


ASTRONOMY — AJAEKAPAD— OAPRICORNUS  95 

10.  Aja-Ekapad  (10,  G5  13)  rises  in  the  east  (Tait  Br.  3.1  28). 
AJa-Ekapad  means  one  footed  goat—Capricornus.  A  poat  fish 
emblem  =  Karibti  has  been  found  on  the  Kassite  boundary  stones. 
Ancient  Ei^yptians  called  it  Sebek=>  crocodile.  The  Hindus 
likewise  call  it  Makara«=  crocodile. 

the   eartti-mother  ==Svamala    (Thraco  Phrygian  Zemelo,     Lith.      zemes- 
Skt.    jami).     As    a   healer  Sagittarius    became   known    as   Dhannantari- 
the   wielder   of  bow  =  the    Archer.     Dhanvantari,    god    of    healing  (MBh. 
3.3.25^  lives  in  NE  heaven  iMark.  P.  29.17). 

Parjanya  is  the  roaring  bull  with  swift  flowing  drops.  5,83.1 
Parjanya  is  the  father  and  Prthivi  is  the  mother  .^v,  12,1  13  — Perkunas, 
Lith.  thunder  and  storm  god  who  with  rain  as  semen  imprepnat-.s  the 
Earth.  Vayu  is  generated  from  the  wombs  of  heaven  1,134.4-  Zd  V.iyu. 
Vata  is  the  breath  of  the  gods,  7.81.2.  One  hears  his  roaring,  but 
cannot  see  his  form  1.164.44.  =  Zd.  Vfita  =  Bootes  =  Lat  Venta  (wind).  Ger. 
Wut,  roaring  furious  storm  wind -AS  Woden  =  Teut.  Odin  after  whom 
Wednesday   like  Badhabara  has  been  named.  Pavana=Rom.  Favonius. 

Capricornus    means    having   the   horns   of  a    goat     (aja).     The   sun 
enters  into  Capricornus   on  Dec   23,    the   day  of  winter  solstice  when  the 
day  begins  to  be  longer,  and  remains  there  up  to  Jan  20.     As  at  that  time 
Regulus  iMagha)  of  Leo  is  seen  in  E  sky  the  month  is  called   Migha.     For 
the  appearance  of  Gemini  =  Mithuna   in   the    NE    sky,  the  month  is  called 
Agra    (beginning)-Ayana     (year).      A     terracotta     figurine    of    a     nude 
maiden  with   seductive   smiles,    globular    breasts,     wearing     a     necklace 
and   heavy   girdle,   vaginal    secretion     flowing     down     in    a    strong    j(jt. 
of   l-2nd   century    Kushan   type   has   been   found    at    Bangue,   Dinajpur. 
The   sun    enters    into    Aquarius   on   Jan.    21    and    remains    there   up    to 
Feb.   19,  As  Cancer    wich  its  Pracespe  =  Pushya  rises   in  E  sky,  the  month 
is  called  Paiisha.     As  at  that  time  Denebola  (Ph'ilguui)    appears  in  E  sky, 
the    month     is     known     as    Phalguna      The   sun    enters    into    Pisces   on 
on  Feb.  20  and  remains  there  up  to    March    21.    Pisces  is  X  68.8.  .Matsya, 
Zd.  BY"   26    Masyo,    and    as   that  time    Virgo  appears    in    E  sky,    and  its 
brilliant  star  is  S pica  =  Citra  the   month    is   called    Caitra^    and    VJianti 
Pui?i  =  Slav.   Vesna,    goddess  of  the   vernal  season,  is  celebrated    in    honor 
of    Virgo.     As    the    Fish  and   the   Virgin    are    in   opposite   colures,    the 
Phoenician  mother  goddess  Atargatis  had  the   upper   part   of  her    body  in 
the   form   of  a   seductive   maiden   but   the    part  that  extended   from   the 
thighs   to    the    feet   terminated  with   the    tad    of   a  fish.   Goat.-fish    and 
Dendera  and    the    Boundary    Stone   of  Meli  shepak.     The    front   part   of 
a  goat   with    horns,    one    front    foot    extended,    and   the   other  bent,  the 
rear  part  fiish  with  tail  (Capricornus). 

The  Chinese  Zodiac,  corresponding  closely  to  the  12  mansions  of  the 
ecliptic,  12  double  hours  and  12  animals,  begins  with  1,  Twin  Women 
for  Virgo  =  Forenoon  ;  2.  then  in  inverse  order  Lion  for  Leo  -  Horse  = 
Midday;  3.  Crab  for  Cancer  =  Lamb  =  Early  Afternoon;  4.  Man  and 
Woman  (resembling  Hindu  Mithunai  for  Gemini  -  Monkey  =  Late 
Afternoon;  5.  Bull  for  Taurus  =  Rooster  =  Sunset  ;  6.  Ram  for  Arics 
=  Dog  =  Twilight  ;  7.  Fishes  for  Pisces  =  Boar  =  Hour  of  Rest  ;  8.  Vase 
for  Aquarius  =  Rat  =  Midnight  ;  9.  Dolphin  for  Capricornus  -  Hour  of 
the  crowing  Rooster;  10  Bow  for  Sagittarius  =  Tiger- Dawn  ;  U. 
Scorpion  for  Scorpio  -  Hare  -  Sun  Rise  ;  12.  Balanee   for   Libra  =  Dragon 


96  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OF  ANCIEBT  INDIA 

11.  Apo  (1,23,7)  is  Aquarius  in  the  shape  of  a  female, 
pouring  oat  from  the  amphora  (kumbha  kukshi  =  Lifch.  kuszys  — 
Gk.  kusos,  kusthos)  a  stream  of  water  into  the  mouth  of  the 
Southern  Fish  (Matsya) 

12.  Matsya  X,  66,  6  =  Zd  BY  62  Masya  is  the  Pisces. 

=  Breakfast  Time  ;  twelve  Mansions  are  Quails  Tail,  Longevity  star, 
Great  fire,  Split  wood,  Stellar  era,  Original  hollow,  Bride  defamed. 
Descending  misfortune,  Large  beam,  Kernel  sunk,  Quails  head,  quails 
fire.  Ox»  Tiger,  Pig,  Dragon,  Phoenix,  Tiger  Tortoise  represent  guardians 
of  eastern,  southern,  western  and  northern  quadrants  of  the  heaven. 
Shaman's  garments  are  decorated  with  these  zodaic  animalis.  but 
substituting  mouse  for  rat,  and  rabbit  for  hare.  Chi-lin  =  unicorn  ;  Ch'an 
=  toad  ;  Hue  =  Scorpio  or  Fang  Hsin  (Leo)  heralded  the  spring.  Tsan 
Mao  (  Orion  and  Pleiades)  marked  autumns  in  late  September.  The  year 
was  of  366  days  of  l2  months,  each  consisting  of  three  periods  of  ten  days. 
Conjunction  of  the  sun  and  the  moon  near  Hiu  (  Aquarius  )  or  Wei 
(Pisces)  commenced  the  beginning  of  the  year. 

Yedic  Stars  ;  1.  Krittika  (Pleiades  in  Taurus  ;  presiding  deity  Agni)  ;  2. 
Rohini  (Aldebaran  in  Taurus  ;  Prajapati) ;  2,  Mrigasira  (Bellatrix  in  Orion  ; 
Soma.  4.  Ardra.  (Betelgeux  in  Orion  -,  Rudra)  ;  5.  Punarvasu  (  Gemini  ; 
Aditi)  ;  6.  Tishya  =  Zd.  Tistrya,  Tir  Yt  iSirus)  ;  =  Pushya  (Praespe  in- 
Cancer  ;  Brihaspati)  ;  T.Aslesha  (Alpaard  in  Hydra  ;  Sarpa  )  ;  8.  Magha 
(Regulus  in  Leo,  Pitris) ;  9.  Uttara  Phalguni  'Denebola  in  Leo  ;  Aryaman) ; 
10.  Purva  Phalguni (Zosma  in  Leo;  Bhaga);  11.  Hasta  (Algores  in  Corvus  ; 
Savitri)  ;  12.  Citra  fSpica  in  Virgo  ;  Indra) ;  13.  Svati  (Arcturus  in  Bootes ; 
Vayu,  Vata)  •,  14  Visakha  (  Zubel  el  chamali  in  Libra)  ;  Indra- Agni)  ;  15. 
Anuradha  (B  Scorpio  ;  Mitra  )  •,  16  Rohini  Jeatha  (Antares  in  Scorpio  : 
Indra)  ;  17.  Mula  Vicitra  (d  Scorpio  ;  Indra  ;  )  J8.  Purvashada  (Kaus 
Australis  in  Sagittarius  ;  Visvadevah)  ;  19  Uttara  Ashara  (B  Sagittarius  ; 
Apah)  ;  20  Sroma  Sravana  (Altair  in  Aquila  ;  Vishnu)  •,  21  Sravestha 
=  Dhanishtha  (Delphenus ;  Vasus)  ;  22.  Satabhisha3  =  Zd  Satavaesa, 
Tir  yt,  star  goddess  of  generation  (Aquarius  ;  Indra- Varuna) ;  23. 
Purva  Bhadrapada  (Pegasus  ;  Aja  Ekapad) ;  24.  Uttara  Bhadrapada 
(Pegasus  ;  Ahi  Budhnya)  ;  25.  Revati  (Pisees  ;  Pushan)  ;  26.  Asvayuj. 
(Hamal  and  Sheraton  in  Aries  ;  Asvinau) ;  27.  Apa-Bharani  (Musca  ; 
Yama)  •,   28.   Abhijit  (Vega  in  Lyra). 

Many  Geek  words  have  entered  into  astronomical  and  mathema- 
tical works  of  Varaha  Mihira,  perhaps  through  Pulisa  (Gk  Paulisa) 
Siddhanta,  who  as  his  name  indicates  was  of  Saka  Iranian  Greco- 
Roman  influence  ;  hora  =  ora  =  hour  ;  kendron  =  kentron  =  centre  ;  tavuri 
=  tauros  ;  pathona  =  pardenos  ;  kriy=>Kreos  ;  ara  =  Ares  ;  hieli  =  Helios  ; 
trikona-trigoaon  ;  lipta  =  lepte;  jamitra="diametron  ;  koti  =  kathelos  ; 
hariza  =  orizon  ;  parthona  =  parthenos  •,  apoklima  =  apoklima  ;  Jya=Zeus  ;, 
Asphujit  -  Aphrodite  ;  kemadruma  =  kenodrumos  ;  panaphara  =»  epana- 
phora.  Varaha  Mihira  of  Maga  descent  in  his  Brhajj^taka  (1,  8)  : 
Kriya,  (Gk,  Kriyos  =  ram,  tavuri.  (Gk.  tauros),  Jituma  (Gk.  didumas  = 
Lat.  geminus  =  twins),  Kulira,  Leya,  Parthona,  Korpya,  Tank,  Sika, 
Akokera.  Hidrdroga,  Irthasi.  Sarvatha  Cintamani  (1,  38-41).  The 
first  sign  of  Zodiac  ;  Mesha,  Aja,  Vasta,  Kriya ;  2  Vrisha,  Ukshan, 
Go,  Tavuri  and  Sukra  -  leha  ;  3  Nri  -  mithuna,  Jituma  ;  4  Karkin  =  Gk- 
Karkinos  =  Lat  Cancer  (crab)  ;  5  the  names  of  Siraharasi  are   Kanthirava-- 


ARTS 

The  images  of  the  mother  goddesses  which  have  been 
discovered  at  Mohenjodaro  are  strikingly  similar  to  those  from 
Susa,  Ur  and  Kish.  Tree  worship  was  originally  the  worship 
of  the  Tree  of  Life,  found  in  Mohenjodaro  and  in  Elam,  as  the 
Elamite  basrelief  of  Uth  century  B.C.  depicts  Enkidu-the 
man-bull— worshipping  the  Sacred  Tree.  Enkidu  =  Ir.  Gopalshah 
—  Puranic  Eishyasringa.  Therioiuorphic  seals,  depicting,  lion, 
bull,  reclining  ram,  have  been  found  at  Susa,  and  the  painted 
pottery,  mostly  red  and  black  ware,  and  sherds,  found  at  M, 
resemble  those  found  at  Jamdet  Nasar  in  Sumer,  Tape  Mousian 
in  the  Pustekuh  Mts.  and  in  Susa,  by  their  pate  (clay),  by  the 
designs  of  their  painting  and  by  their  technique.  The  worship  of 
theriomorphic  gods  is  found  amonat  the  Hittites  (lasilikoy)  and 
the  Kissites  of  the  Zagros  Range.  There  the  gods  are  mounted 
on  animals  like  the  Fa/tanas  of  the  Hindu  deities.  Therio- 
morphic gods  of  M  have  the  horns  of  buffiUoes  and  bulls  as  in 
Babylonian  iconography,  Babylon  =■  Babirush  in  inscriptions 
of  Darius  =  Baveru  of  Jatakas. 

and  Leya  (Leo)  ;  6  Pathona  ('Parthenos  =  maiden,  Virgin),  Abal5  and 
Tanvi  ;  7  Juka,  Vanik  and  Taulin  ;  8  Kaupya  (Scorpio)  Kamja  ;  _9  Jaiva 
(Jupiter),  Uhanus,  Tausika  (Gk  Toxotes  -  archer)  Capa  (bow)  •.  10  Akokeca 
(Gk.  aigo  =  goat-,  kero3  =  horn),  Makara  ;  11  Hrdroga  (Gk  hudor- water  ; 
water  pourer),  Kumbha-,  12  Itthas  (Gk.  ikhtheus  -  fish),  Mina,  Rispha. 

Savitr  advancing  through  dusky  firmaments  puts  everybody  to 
sleep  every  night  Rv.  1,  35.  2.  With  glowing  beams  of  light,  Savitri 
raises  aloft  his  banner  in  the  vault  of  heaven,  Rv.  4.  14.  2.  Savitri,  you 
dwell  with  the  sun's  rays  and  encompass  the  night  from  both  sides  — 
twilights -uta  yasi  Savitas  Suryasya  rasmibhi  sam  ucyasi  uta  ;  ratrim 
ubhayatah  pariyasa  Rv.  5.  81.  4.  S aw W.'c  ^  Zodiacal  Light,  a  faint 
lenticular  illumination  of  the  sky.  surrounding  the  sun  and  elongated 
in  the  direction  of  the  ecliptic  on  each  side  of  the  sun.  In  the 
tropics  where  the  ecliptic  is  nearly  perpendicular  in  the  horizon,  the 
cone  of  this  white  light  may  be  seen  after  the  end  of  twilight, 
on  every  clear  evening  and  before  twilight  every  clear  morning,  unless 
blotted  out  by  moonlight.  Excellent  Savitar  has  looked  on  heaven's  high 
vault  and  shines  after  the  outgoing  of  Eurora  (nakam  akhyat  Savit.'i  varenyo 
'nu  prayanam  Ushaso  vi  rajati,  5,  81,  2).  Auroras  paint  their  bright  rays  on 
the  sky's  far  limits  as  Savitar  spreads  his  arms  and  they  give  forth  their 
lustre  (Vianjate  divo  auteshv  aktun  Ushasho  yatante  jyotir  yachanti 
Saviteva  bahu,  7,  79.  2).  The  Aurora  Light  is  of  pale  golden  color. 
As  both  Zodiacal  and  Aurora  lights  are  comingled,  Savitr  is  called 
golden-eyed  ihiranyakshah,  l,35.8i,  golden-handed  (hiranya  pinih,  1,35,9), 
golden-tongued  (hiranya-jihvah,  6,  71.  3),  who  with  his  golden  splendour 
(hiraayyim   amatiox)    illumes,    the  air   and  the  space  of  heaven  (3.  38,  8). 

7 


98  THE  LITEEAEY  HISTOET  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

The     rade     cyclopem     stone     walls    of    ancient    Rajigriha 


Savitr    is    the  progenitor    (bbuvansya   parajapati)    of   the  world.  4.  53.  2. 
Subhaga,  a  name  of  Siva  =  Subigus,  Roaian  god  of  the  wedding  night. 


Mercury 

Venus 

Earth 

Mars 

Jupiter 

S  itara 

Urauus 

Neptune 

Plutc 

<1)     86-0 

67-2 

92-9 

141-7 

488-2 

886 

1782 

2792 

8671 

(2)     0-24 

0-C2 

1 

1-88 

11-86 

29-46 

84-02 

164  8 

243-4 

<3)     291 

21-7 

18-47 

150 

81 

6  0 

4-2 

8-4 

8-0 

(4)     0-06 

.  0  92 

ro 

9  15 

1312 

734 

6-4 

42 

-1 

(5)     0-04 

0-81 

1-0 

1-11 

317 

949 

14'7 

17-2 

0-1 

(6)     8-8 

4  86 

5-52 

3  95 

l-3i 

071 

1-27 

2-2 

<7)     88d 

85d 

23h 

2lh 

9h 

lOh 

l!th 

15h 

56ai 

S7m5 

50in5 

14m 

45m 

4Sm 

<8)     C  410° 

60° 

60° 

83° 

- 138° 

-153° 

-185° 

-200° 

-211' 

(8)     P770° 

140° 

140° 

83° 

-216° 

-248° 

-387° 

-800° 

-843 

<9)     0-203 

0007 

0017 

0-093 

0  048 

0-056 

0-047 

0-G9 

0-249 

(10)  6-07 

0-59 

0'5 

0  15 

0-44 

0-42 

0-45 

052 

{11}  CO, 

OIN 

H,0, 

CO, 

CHO 

NH3 

CH4 

NH^ 

CO, 

H,6 

(1)  Distance  from  the  sun  in  millions  of  miles.  (2)  Sideral  period  Revolution 
round  the  sun  in  years.  (8)  Mean  orbital  velocity  and  per  second  in  miles. 
<4)  Volume,  Earth=l.  (5)  Mass  (Earth=l).  (6)  Density  (water=]).  (7)  Kota- 
tion  period.  (8)  Surface  temperature,  maximum.  (.9)  Eccentricity  of  orbit, 
(10)     Albedo.     (11)     Gases. 

Mitra  =  Mithra  Aryaman  =  Airvaman,  Soma  =  Haema,  Vayu  =  Vayu, 
Vata  =  Vata,  U.shas  =  Usas,  Vrithrahan  =  Verethaghna.  Vivasvat  =  Vivaha- 
vant,  Aptya=  Athwaya,  Trita  =  Thrita,  Traitana  =  Thraetana  are  common 
Indo  -  Iranian  deities  But  Indrai  Sarva  =  Sharva,  N3satya  were  regarded 
as  Daeva  =  Lith  Dievas  =  Devas,  meaning  demons  after  the  downfall  of 
Daeva  worshipe.rs  with  the  triump  of  Zoroastrianism.  According  to  Romaka 
(of  Rome)  Siddhanta  the  year  was  of  365  d  5  h  5  m  12  s.  The  Hindu 
year  began  with  the  winter  solstice  ;  so  it  was  called  Margi-Sirsa- 
the  leader  of  the  path  When  it  was  with  the  vernal  equinox,  it  was 
called  Vaisakha  ;  when  with  the  autumnal  equinox,  Kartika  -  Agra  - 
Ayana,  the  leader  of  the  new  year.  In  the  Vedic  period  the  year  was 
divided  into  4  quarters  of  91  days  each  (Vishnupada),  which  later  was 
divided  into  three  months  of  13  weeks,  into  2  solstices  and  2  equinoxes. 
If  we  again  start  the  year  with  Makar  Samkranti  (Capricornus  on  Dac  21, 
winter  solstice)  =  Magha,  Vaisaka,  starting  from  Mesa  Samkranti  Tcalled 
Caitra  on  March  21,  Aries  =  vernal  equinox),  Sravana  from  Karkata 
Samkranti  (Cancer,  summer  solstice  on  June  21)  and  Kartika  on 
Kanya  Samkranti  (Libra  included  in  Virgo  previously  on  the  autumnal 
equinox  on  Sept  22)  have  3 1  days  each,  beginning  on  Sundays  and 
ending  on  Tuesdays  ;  Phalguna,  Jaistha,  Bhadra  and  Agrayana  may  have 
thirty  days  each,  beginning  on  Wednesdays  and  ending  on  Thursdays  ; 
Caitra,  Asara,  Asvina  and  Pausa,  thirty  days,  beginning  on  Fridays  and 
ending  on  Saturdays.  If  one  day  is  allotted  at  the  end  of  Caitra,  as  the 
years  End  Day,  this  will  account  for  yearly  355  days  with  regular 
months,  the  year  and  the  quarter  always  beginning  on  Sundays.  Similarly 
for  leap  year  one  day  may  be  added  at  the  end  of  Pausa.  If  the  Eur- 
American  countries  adopt  the  same  calender  reform  which  is  possible, 
then  our  months  will  correspond  to  their  as  Jan  =  Magha,    Dec  =  Pausha. 


ARTS— MOnilNJODARO  99 

Giribraja   ascribed    to  Jarasandha,    14-17  ft.  in  thickness.    face>l 
with    massive   undressed    stones,    set   without   niortir,     and    at 

Potter's  wheel  was  not  known  in  Ejjypt  before  first  dyna<5ty  (.lOOT 
B.C  )  when  it  was  introduced  from  \V.  Asia  and  Babylonia  ;  and  n  )t  usud 
until  4-5th  dynasty.  In  Mohcnjodaro  about  23rd,  Asia  Minor  19th  and 
Crete  15th  century  B.C.  The  main  street  (rathyam^  of  M  was  33  feet 
wide  and  all  tlie  streets  from  north  to  south,  and  east  tj  west 
intersect  each  other  at  ricjht  ani;les. 

The  roofs  of  the  Gip.tram  of  S.  Indian  templ-s  are  decorated 
with  bull's  horns  as  in  Babylonia.  Thij  Aryan  and  Iranian  succession 
is  patriarchical,  while  fn  Uravira,  it  is  m.^triarchical  as  in  anci-jnt 
Egypt  and  Elam.  Nephews  succeeded  their  maternal  uncles  in  Susa. 
Even  the  famous  M  humpsd  bull  is  alniDst  a  replica  of  the  humped 
bull  of  Tell  A2,rab  relief  on  a  green  steatite  vasi  showing  a  Sumerian  figure 
before  a  building  (  I.  L  N.  Sept  12.  1936).  Plate  91,  6-8  :  Mohenjodaro, 
is  a  bronze  casting  in  cire  perdue  process,  4  25  inches  high.  It  is  an 
exceptionally  well- modelled  figurine  of  a  young  danseuse  with  long 
arms  and  legs.  Her  right  hand  rests  lightly  on  her  right  hip  in  an 
imprudent  suggestive  pose.  Her  left  arm,  almost  covered  with  bangles, 
hangs  loosely.  Her  legs  are  sjmewliat  bent  and  right  leg  slightly  for- 
ward as  she  beats  time  to  the  music  of  her  ankled  feet  'PI.  73.  Fig.  5). 
The  head  provocatively  tilted  is  a  skilfull  impressionistic  rendering 
of  prognathic  face,  long  eyes,  fl.it  nose  and  bunched  curly  hair.  The 
hair  is  worn  in  short  crimped  curls  on  the  top  of  the  head  and  a 
thick  lock  starting  from  the  left  side  is  brought  round  behind  the  head 
and  over  the  right  shoulder.  The  face  is  negroid  of  care  free 
mischievous  appearance.  The  nose  is  broad  and  lips  are  thick.  Eyes 
are  long.  A  necklace  or  a  double  cord  has  threi)  pendants  or 
amulets  suspended  from  it  to  the  hollow  of  the  firm  and  wdl-developed 
bosoms.  Her  pubic  triangle  is  shown  with  short  dark  curly  hair.  The 
wanton  abandon  e.xpressed  in  the  face  and  the  lim)3  is  quite  realistic. 

This  nude  bronze  casting  of  a  Hamitic  type  with  curly  locks  of 
hair.  long  arms,  lank  feet,  large  mouth,  broad  nose  and  thick  lips, 
pendulous  narrow  pelvis,  is  certainly  a  marvellous  creation  at  this 
early  age.  Another  Hamitic  type  is  observed  in  a  badly  weathered 
head  of  female  statue  in  grey  limestone,  now  57  inches  high.  The 
hair  of  the  head  is  slightly  curly  and  hangs  down  the  back  of  the 
head.  The  eyes  beneath  the  receding  forehead  are  long  and  narrow  ; 
and  the  original  inlay  of  the  right  eye  which  is  made  of  whiter 
stone  than  the  head,  is  still  in  place.  The  inlay  of  the  eyes  by  a 
different  eye-colored  stones  w.is  customary  in  Babylonia.  Marked 
steatopygia  in  a  pregnant  terracotta  figurine  (PI.  153.  33)  is  apparent 
as  in  Bushman  woman.  Plate  73.  9-1 1  is  an  exceptionally  well-modelled 
bronze  figure  of  a  dancing  girl,  5  2  inches  high  ;  but  it  has  suffered 
badly  from  corrosion.  It  is  a  tall  figurine  with  long  slender  arms  and 
feet.  The  feet  are  close  together.  The  left  l)ent  arm  which  is  heavily 
loaded  with  bracelets  has  the  hand  on  the  left  buttock.  The  ri;;ht 
arm  is  in  front  of  the  vulva  in  order  to  p^int  it  out.  The  hair 
appears  to  be  tied  in  the  back  in  the  form  of  a  bow  at  the  nape  of  the 
neck.  She  is  entirely  nude  e.>;cept  the  few  ornaments.  She  has  firie 
•breasts.     She  stands   with  erect  head  and  proud  dignity.     Plate  79.   23  is 


100  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

places  12feet.  high  Jarasandha  ka  Bhaitak  is  a  platform  aboufe 
85  ft.  square  at  base  and  sloping  upwards  20  28  ft,  74'x78'at 
the   top,     built     wholly   of    unhewn    stones,    but   neatly   fitted 

the   bronze   figure   of    a   well-made     short-horned     bull,    1*5    inch   high. 
Plate  71.  23  is  that  of  a  bronze  buffalo,  2"85  inches  high. 

Plate  93.  1-4  is  a  steatite  portrait  statue,  7  inches  high.  It 
represents  the  broad  head  and  shoulders  of  a  male  Shaman  priest  of 
Ural-Altaic  origin.  The  lower  part  and  back  of  the  head  are  missing. 
The  figure  is  draped  in  an  elaborate  shawl  with  corded  edge,  worn 
over  the  left  shoulder  and  under  the  rigkt  arm.  This  shawl  is 
decorated  with  a  design  of  trefoils  in  relief,  interspersed  occasionally 
with  small  circles,  the  interiors  of  which  are  filled  with  a  red  pigment. 
It  has  a  short  beard  and  whiskers  ;  moustache  is  closely  cut  or  shaved, 
as  customary  in  Sumer.  The  eyes  are  long  and  half  closed  in  a 
Shamanistic  mood.  The  shell  inlay  as  in  Ansam  of  one  eye  is 
still  in  place-  The  nose  is  well-formed  and  of  medium  size  ;  it 
springs  from  the  exceptionally  low  and  receding  forehead.  The 
mouth  is  of  average  size  with  full  and  fleshy  lips.  The  hair  is  parted 
in  the  middle  and  brushed  over  the  back  of  the  head  where  it  ends 
in  a  bun.  Around  the  head  is  a  plain  fillet  of  some  woven  matterial 
which  is  fastened  at  the  back  in  a  knot  whose  loose  ends  hang  down 
from  behind.  The  fillet  is  ornamented  with  a  circular  buckle,  placed 
in  the  middle  of  the  forehead.  The  general  finish  is  exceptionally, 
good  ;  its  surface  is  smooth  and  in  some  places  almost  polished.  The 
facial  expression  of  priestly  haughtiness  and  dignity  are  marked.  Shaman 
=-Pali  Samana  =  Skt.  Sramana. 

Harappa  redstone  torso  (PI.  10)  shows  the  refined  and  wondeifully 
truthful  modtilling  of  the  fleshy  parts,  the  subtle  flattening  of  the 
buttocks  and  the  clever  little  dimples  of  the  posterior  spines  of  the 
ilium.  It  surpasses  even  the  classic  of  Greek  sculpture.  Its  rather 
fleshy  and  pronounced  abdomen  shows  its  Indian  characteristic. 
Another  grey  stone  statuette  (PI.  11)  torso  of  Harappa  is  a  dancer, 
standing  on  his  right  leg  with  the  body  from  the  waist  upwards 
bent  round  to  the  left,  both  arms  thrown  in  the  same  direction,  and 
the  left  leg  raised  high  in  the  front.  The  dancing  pose  is  full 
of  movement  and  swing.  Though  the  body  looks  eflSminate 
and  soft,  it  was  of  a  male,  as  the  phallus  has  been  found  in  a  separate 
piece.  There  are  socket  holes  in  the  neck  and  shoulders  of  them 
for  the  attachment  of  head  and  arms,  made  in  separate  parts.  It  was 
Na- ta-ya  =  Natesa  =  Nataraja,  Thracian  Sabazios  =  Sabos  =  Pol.  Zywie 
=  S- Slav.  Ziva,  Elbe  Slav  Siva  =  Hindu  Siva.  A  terracotta  figurine  of 
Mongoloid  type  from  Mohenjodaro  plate  76.  86. 

Taxila  has  four  successive  strata  of  buildings.  The  lowest  two  strata 
were  occupied  between  7-8  centuries  B.  C.  by  unindentified  people. 
The  next  strata  was  occupied  by  Alexander's  army  in  326  B.  C.  Hellenic 
pottery  and  coins  of  Atexander  and  Phillip  Aridanes  have  been  found 
there  in  abundance.  Bactrian  lonians  occupied  it  in  2nd  century  B.  C, 
And  when  they  consolidated  their  conquests,  they  made  its  neighboring 
outskirt — Sirkap— their  chief  residential  quarter.  There  at  Sirkap 
which  is  the   third  strata,   they   built    straight  regular    roads.    Scythian. 


ART3  — INDUS  AND  VEDIO  101 

together  without  any  mortar,  and  containing  15  cells -6' -7'  in 
length  3'—  1  in  breadth,  form-.'d  an  enclosure  of  an  inner  citadel 
of  sixth  century  B.  C.  It  appears  to  be  Polynesian  as  it  lacks 
the  Mykeniean  or  Khatti  fine  joints  and  lion  gates  of  fifth, 
century  B.  C,  About  a  mile  orf,  Ajatasatru  built  a  citadel  — 
Kusagarapura— protected  by  walls  of   massive  masonry    between 

Azes  built  bastions  and  walls  of  stones.  When  Parthians  were 
conquered  by  Kushans  about6K\  D.  there  was  much  destruction  of 
the  buildings,  and  the  majority  of  inhabitants  were  killed,  some  escaped 
and  the  rest  were  enslaved. 

Yet  it  seems  that  the  Vedic  civilization  differs  from  the  Indus 
civilization.  Vedic  peoples  were  pastoral  and  agricultural,  and  lived  in 
nomadic  reed  cottages  and  skin  tents  Indus  peoples  lived  in  dtnse 
populated  kiln-burnt,  brick-built  houses,  with  bath  rooms,  well-!,  drainage 
and  sanitation.  Vedic  peoples  are  armed  with  bows  and  arrows,  spears, 
daggers,  axe,  helmet  and  coat  of  mail.  The  Indus  peoples  have 
socketed  axe  and  stone  or  bronzj  mace  like  the  Sumerians,  and 
Egyptians,  and  like  them  no  coat  of  mail.  Tiger  finds  no  mention  in 
the  Vedas,  and  elephant  seldom,  but  they  are  common  in  Indus  seals. 
Hearth  and  Fire  Pits  are  important  in  the  Vedas,  but  not  usual  in  the 
Indus  finds  except  for  cooking  purposes.  Vedic  peoples  took  barley 
cakes,  milk,  cheese,  butter,  beef,  bufiflilo  and  horse  flesh,  mead,  sour 
milk  wine,  sometimes  mixed  with  the  paste  of  flowering  resinous  buds 
of  hemp  (Soma).  The  Indus  people  besides  wheat  bread,  took  dates, 
date  wines,  tody,  beef,  mutton,  pork,  poultry,  fresh  fish  from  the  river, 
dried  fish  from  the  sea  coast,  turtles  and  shell  fish.  Barbed  bronze  fish 
hook  has  been  found  among  them  as  in  early  Egypt  and  Sumer.  Cow 
is  praised  in  the  Vedas,  while  bull  by  the  Indus  people.  Image  worship 
was  seldom  mentioned  in  the  Vedas,  while  it  was  popular  on  the 
Indus.  Mother  goddess  and  phallic  worship  was  common  while  the 
phallic  worshippers  fsisna  devan  Rv.  X,  99-3)  are  despised  oy  the 
Indra-worshippers.  The  Indus  peoples  might  have  come  through 
Baluchistan,  then  less  arid,  and  some  by  the  sea.  The  Vedic  tribes 
have  poured  into  India  through  Bolan  and  Khyber  passes  and  other 
Himalayan  gorges.  And  they  met  and  partly  fused  with  the  mixed 
Negrito  Australoids  and  Indonesian  migrants. 

The  Indus  riverine  civilization  may  be  dated  1100-300  B.C  extending 
as  far  east  as  Rupur  in  Amballa  and  south-west  as  far  as  Ranizpur  in 
Limbudi  in  Kathiwar.  Maurya  (320- 185)  ;  Sunga,  Andhra  Parthian 
=  Kshatraps  (  2'00  B.  C  -250  A.  D.  )  ;  Kushana  and  later  Andhras 
(251-320);  Gupta  320-603  A.  D.  Archeological  dates  are  mostly 
speculative,  Afrasian  civilizations  have  been  very  much  antedated 
to  fit  them  with  the  Babylonian,  Biblical  and  PurSnic  traditions.  The 
Indus  civilization  is  Indo-Sumerian.  At  Chanhu-Daro  a  pottery  head, 
carved  in  wet  clay  with  deep-set  eyes,  small  mouth  and  shaven  head 
just  as  like  the  Sumerians.  A  bronze  toy  cart  with  the  driver  seated  in 
front  with  two  solid  wheels  rotating  on  an  axis  is  similar  to  one  found  at 
Ur  (I.L.N.  Nov.  14,1936).  A  copper  hair  pin  with  coiled  head,  a  type 
•common  in  Sumer.  A  small  bronze  cosmetic  jar  with  fluted  body  ;  the  like 
of  which  was  used  in  Babylonia  for  using  eye- paint  Kohl.     A  copper  rajor 


102  THE  LITEEARZ  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

solid  blocks  of  stone,  and  portion  of  the  wall  are  still  in  fair 
preservation.  Maurya  capital — Pataliputra  as  appears  from  the 
excavation  had  a  missive  wooden  city  wall  ;  a  timbered 
flooring  extending  for  350  feet  ;  a  series  of  heavy  wooden  plat- 
form? to  support  a  big  and  tall  super  structure  ;  a  pillared 
hall  with  80  polished    stone   columms    like  that  of   the    audience 

with  an  edge  on  both  side  with  a  handle  and  horseshoe  rajor  with  edges 
on  both  ends,  common  in  Sumer.  An  ivory  comb  with  incised  decoration 
of  concentric  circles  on  each  side,  the  like  of  which  was  worn  by 
predynastic  people  in  ancient  Egypt.  A  pottery  ink-pot  and  a  painted 
pottery  head  rest  are  quite  similar  to  those  used  in  Egypt.  The  pottery 
of  the  Jhukar  culture  is  patterned  after  the  art  designs  of  Tell  Halaf, 
possibly  coming  through  Iranian  highlands  (  I.L.N.  Nov,  21/1936). 
PI.  13,  17,  Sumerian  Enkidu  — half-human,  half  bovine  satyr.  PI.  117,16- 
Leaf  clad  Gilgamesh  hunts  on  a  copper  tablet  with  horns  on  ;  his  head  and 
bow  in  one  hand.  Three  cylinder  seals  have  been  found  ;  cylinder 
seal  was  typical  of  Sumer.  Indus  valley  had  stamp  seal.  An  oblong. 
seal  of  a  boat  like  the  papyrus  boat  of  Egypt  has  been  found. 

Inspite  of  many  striking  similarities  between  Indus  and  Sumerian 
civilizations,  the  Indus  civilization  has  shown  distinct  originality  of  its  own. 
Mohenjodaro  was  laid  out  in  rectangular  blocks  for  the  streets  and  lanes 
are  at  right  angles.  The  central  road  was  33  feet  wide.  The  dwelling 
houses  were  2-3  stories  high  ;  stairways  leading  to  the  upper  stories 
are  built  of  narrow  treaded  burnt  reddish  bricks  like  the  buildings.  The 
walls  of  houses  were  fairly  thick,  the  inner  faces  being  perpendicular. 
The  finish  given  to  the  walls  was  either  a  clay  plaster  or  the  bricks  were 
rubbed  down  to  give  a  fine  finish.  Most  of  the  houses  had  private  wells. 
The  drainage  system  was  unique,  unknown  in  the  ancient  world.  The 
drains  were  either  laid  along  the  middle  of  the  street  or  along  the  sides, 
and  subsidiary  drains  from  houses  on  both  sides  emptied  into  them. 
The  drains  were  generally  covered  with  bricks,  but  when  they  were 
usually  wide,  they  were  covered  with  rough  hewn  limestones. 
Upper  story  sewage  was  often  allowed  to  run  down  the  outer  walls  of  the 
houses.  In  the  junction  of  four  drain  outfalls,  soak  pits  and  culverts 
with  corbelled  roofs  were  constructed.  Drain  pipes  of  porous  pottery 
are  with  spigots  for  fitting  each  other,  or  of  conical  shape  so  that  the 
smaller  end  of  one  fitted  into  the  larger  end  of  the  next  at  Chanhudaro 
(I.L  N.  Nov.  14,  1936).  Representations  of  typical  Indian  animals  such  as 
elephant,  rhinoceros,  crocodile,  none  of  which  has  ever  appeared  on 
Sumerian  or  Akkadian  seals,  have  been  found  at  Tell  Asmar ; 
another  seal  of  rhinoceros  at  Ashnunak,  thus  indicating  inter  change  of 
trade.  The  beard  with  shaven  upper  lip,  trefoil  design  on  the  costume 
and  the  mode  of  hair  dressing  in  the  sitting  statue  are  quite  Sumerian 
The  trefoil  pattern  occurs  in  the  man-headed  bull  of  heaven.  It  bears  the 
symbols  of  Shamash,  the  sun  god,  Sin,  the  moon  god,  and  Ishtar,  the 
morning  and  evening  stars  Trefoil  appears  in  Egypt  on  Hathor — the 
mother  goddess  as  Lady  of  Heaven.  There  is  a  representation  of  a  three 
headed  bovine  monaster  on  a  number  of  seals,  recalling  the  piimordial  bull 
of  Babylonia,  the  progenitor  of  all  living  things.  A  copper  toilet  set  enclos- 
ed in  a  ling,  composed  of  a  pincer,  a  needle  and  an  ear  spoon  (for  remov- 
ing ear  wax),  found  at  Harappa»  closely  resembles  the  spaciman  of  Ur. 


ART8— INDUS  AND  SUMRR  103 

chamber  of  Achaeraeniaa  Persepolis  ;  a  luagnificent  Btono 
capital,  a  stone  voassoir  from  an  arch  ;  a  stone  fjrilVm  bracket 
and  other  fraf^menta. 


Mitannians  in  1500-1400  B.  C.  had  at  Ut^arit  a  well  developed 
drainage  and  sewer  system  of  sanitation  with  lead  grilles.  The  main 
sewer  is  a  varitaMe  tunnel  nine  feet  underground  and  a  p-.Tsin  of  nuiltst 
stature  could  walk  upwriglu  in  it  witliout  dilTiculty.  They  had  hronzu 
bits  for  war  chariots.  They  had  steell  battle  axe,  the  head  ornamented 
with  a  Ijoar  and  two  lion  masks  (IL  N.  Jan.  6,  19-10). 

Drinking  and  sucking  tubes  as  in  early  Sumer.  PI.  111,12;  136,24. 
Gilgamesh  fighting  with  lions  in  both  sides  of  him,  Seals  75,  86. 
Serpentine  bracelets  as  at  Kish,  PI,  140.  58.  Segmented  beads  with 
hemispherical  terminals  as  necklaces,  common  in  Egypt.  Sumer,  PI.  136  6. 
Stools  with  legs  of  oxen  occur  in  Egypt  from  First  Dynasty.  Seal  222.  Bed 
with  a  reclining  figurine,  PI  123  25  ;  concubine  of  the  deities  in  Sumer  ; 
buried  with  the  deal  in  ancient  Egypt.  Socketted  axe  adge  =  mattock  PI. 
120,27  ;  122,12  ;  of  copper  resembks  Tepe  Hirsar  finds. 

The  painted  pottery  of  Jhukur  near  Larkina,  Chanhudaro  and  early 
Harappa  resembles  the  wares  of  Tell  Halap  and  Tell  Chagar  and  Tell 
Agrab,  the  principal  demarcation  of  which  lies  in  the  broad  horizontal 
bands  separating  the  various  devices  that  ornament  by  boldly  painted 
plant  designs  of  leaves  or  buds,  joined  togetlier  with  curved  stems, 
usually  in  black,  the  red  b.aing  used  for  the  broad  bands,  seperating  the 
registers  (  I  LN  Nov.  21,  1936).  In  the  scarlet  ware  of  Tell  Agrab  of 
preceding  Jamdet  Nasr  period,  2  broad  red  bands  contain  3  delicate 
water  plants  in  black.  Then  three  nude  temple  women  painted  red  wearing 
cow  face  masks  and  prominent  black  pubic  triangle,  beating  tam!)0urine3 
in  honour  of  a  red  painted  bull  with  erect  penis,  black  tail  and  horn. 
Other  two  red  bands  contain  bent  date  leaves  in  black.  In  another  sherd 
an  ibex  with  erect  penis  in  black  is  found  '•  I.  L.  N.  Nov.  6,  1937). 
There  was  a  Buddhist  stupa  enclosed  within  a  big  monastery  of  Kushan 
period,  for  not  only  three  coins  of  Vasudeva  with  Siva  and  Bull  type,  but 
also  in  Kushan  lettering  both  in  Kharoshti  and  Brahmi.  Sam^ma  has 
been  found  engraved  in  the  mound.  In  the  second  stratum.  4J  feet 
below,  a  frog  cut  out  of  a  shell  (  PI.  96.  15),  possibly  of  the  Mauryas,  has 
been  found.  Frog  was  the  amulet  of  ancient  Egyptians  against  fevers. 
In  the  third  stratum  a  small  statue  of  a  ram  (PI.  87.  6)  of  yellow  fience 
paste  has  been  found  Ram  amulet,  representing  Anion,  w.is  common  in 
ancient  Egypt.  4  5  feet  below  the  mound  there  is  an  open  quadrangle 
in  the  centre  with  verandahs  on  its  four  sides  In  its  midst  there  is  a 
path  39  feet  long,  23  feet  wide  and  8  feet  deep  At  the  b;ick  of  the  three 
verandahs  are  various  rooms  and  galleries  ;  on  the  south  is  a  long 
gallery  with  a  small  chamber  at  each  end  ;  on  the  east  a  single  range 
of  small  rooms  one  of  which  contains  a  well,  on  the  mouth  there  is  a 
group  of  several  halls  and  fair-sized  chambers.  The  waste  water  from 
the  bath  was  carried  off  through  a  covered  drain  in  s.w.  corner  ;  its 
corbelled  roof  6  feet  6  inches  in  height.  The  Bath  had  at  least  one  upper 
storey,  as  the  remains  of  a  staircase  has  been  found.  To  the  north  eight 
rooms  with  baths  have  been  excavated  with  their  doorways  opening  into 
a  central  passage  along  which  runs  a  well-made  drain.  It  seems  priests 
lived  in  the  upper  story,  and   each   had  a  bath   room    for   himself.    It  was 


104  THE  LITERARY  HIST03Y  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA. 

Maurya  Asoka  set  up  at  least  30  monolithic  pillars  of 
which  JO  bear  inscriptions,  all  in  Br  except  two  in  Kb. 
Lauria  Nandangarh  pillar  has  a  shaft  of  polished  sandstone 
32  feet  y^"  in  height ;  it  diminishes  from  a  base  diameter  of 
35J*    to   a   diameter   'd,-<i^"   at   the   top.     This    gradual   tapering 

the  ritual  custom  in  ancient  Egypt  to  take  their  baths  regularly  thrice 
daily  and  particularly  before  any  religious  ceremony.  Each  brick  was 
10.  35  inches  long  9"25  inches  wide;  corbelled  bricks  Ilx5|-x2^ 
inches.  Mortar  consisted  of  gypsum  mixed  with  sand.  The  roof  seems 
to  have  been  a  timber  frame  covered  with  mud.  There  is  a  corridor 
hall  at  Harappa.  Indus  architecture  is  of  purely  utilitarian  efficiency 
for  business-like  minded  people  with  solid  comforts  of  spacious  well- 
ventilated  rooms,  having  baths,  drainage,  sanitary  underground  sewage 
on  broad  streets  in  well-planned  towns  on  big  rivers,  havivg  transport 
facilities  and  abundant  water  supply.  Their  dewelling  houses  were  comfort- 
able and  enjoyed  quiet  dignity  though  the  Indus  towns  lacked  grand 
temple  monuments  of  Babylonia  or  the  lofty  funeral  pyramids— the  burial 
chambers  of  ancient  Egyptian  potentates.  In  Jhukor  near  Larkana  Indus 
civilization  terminates  with  the  Kushans. 

It   is  very   likely  that   the  Indus   riverine   civilization    has  been   given 
too   early   date  like   the    Puranic    genealogy,    through  contemporaneously 
collateral    lines  ;  spectographic   research    of  the    segmented    beads    found 
at  Harappa   and  Knossos   of  Middle   Minoan    III   of  about    1600    B.    C. 
has    demonstrated     their    identity    of    composition.    The    MH  might   be 
coinciding   with  the   early    Maurya   period.     Ringstones    of   greyish    buff 
or  pinkish    buff  sandstone   like    that    of   Chunar,    highly     polished   and 
carved     in     low      relief     with   jewel    like    workmanship     and     exquisite 
finish  ;    the   upper     surface    has     2   concentric     cable- jdged    bands    filled 
with   cross    and   reel  motives  ;     the   sides  of  the     hole   {Yoni     symbol) 
with   4   standing   nudes  with  a  heavy  girdled  exaggerated    depilated  vulva 
(depilation    was  customary   with  the  Egyptians,    Scythian  hordes,  Greeks, 
Romans,    Yuechi    Kushans,     Iranians,    Turks    and     Chinese  ;    the   pubic 
hair    was   kept  as    an  aphrodisiac   censer   by    the    Sumerians,    Sushinaks, 
Assyrians,    AmoriteS—Amrit  =  Egypt.    Mrt.  =  Pur.  Amara  ;  deity  Amurru  ; 
consort  Askirat  of  libido    and   joy — Phoenicians,    the   Jews,   Teutons   and 
Kelts),   prominent    breasts    and  the  head  covered    with  a  veil,  interspaced 
with   erect   penis,    like     vajra   lotus     buds  ;     base     3*27     inches,     inner 
diameter    1  06  inch,    depth    1  inch,  weight   8f   oz,  have   been   discovered 
at     various    sites  ;    7    in    Taxila,    2    at    Mathura,     one    each    at   Saheth 
-Maheth  'Sravasti),  Kandam  Kwasi  (Patna)  and  Sankisa   (near   Kanouj). 
Kandam  Kwasi    Ringstone     is      inscribed     with      Vis^kasa     in     Brahmi 
character     of    Asokan     period.        These     female      nudes      bear      close 
resemblance     to      those      appearing      on       gold     leaf      plaques     found 
in    tumili   at      Lauria    Nandangarh    and    Piprawa,    as    wife      substitutes 
for   the  dead    or    Earth  -  Mother  fertility  goddess.     Ringstone   represent- 
ing  the   vulva     was    placed   on    aniconic  stones    as     a   symbolic   phallic 
worship.     It   gradually   developed  into  Siva  -  Sakti  image.  Plate  13.7  has 
the    figure   of  the   vulva   at     the    junction   of     two    thighs,    found    on   a 
chalcolithic  site  in  N.  Baluchistan.  Plates  14.2  and  14.4  are  well-modelled 
realistic   phalli,    found  in   M.     The   stupa   at  Piprawa  (in  Basti  Dt.  UP) 
is   of  pre-Asokan   date.     It   contains   a   relic   vase,     inscribed   in   pre- 


ARTS  -MAURYA  OUPTA  105 

makes  it  a  very  graceful  column  ;  it  bears  first  six  pillar 
edicts.  Bakhira  pillar  in  Muzaffiir[)ur  Dt  is  more  niassive  and 
possibly  of  an  earlier  date.  The  capithi  of  each  pillar  liko 
the  shaft  is  monolithic,  coinprisinj^  of  a  Persejjolitan  bell, 
abacus  and  a  crowning  sculpture  in  the  round.  The  etl^'e  of 
abacus  of  Lauriya  Nandangarh  pillar  is  decorated  by  a  row 
of  flying  g^ecse  in  low  relief.  The  abacuses  of  the  pillars  at 
Allahabad,  Sankisa  and  Rampurva  have  elej^ant  designs  of 
lotus  and  p'.ilmette.  The  crowning  sculpture  was  the  elephant, 
horse,  bull  or  the  lion.  All  these  animals  except  the  hor^-e  are 
found.  Horse  crowned  the  pillar  at  liumindei  in  the  Lumbini 
garden.  On  the  sides  of  the  Sarnath  capital,  all  these  four 
animals  are  carved  in  basrelief,  inters[:)ace.l  with  wheels  of  law 
between  212-232  B.  C.  The  four  addorsed  and  affronted  lions 
standing  back  to  back  on  the  abacus  once  supported  a  stone 
wheel  2'9''  in  diameter  of  which  fragments  remain. 


Asokan  characters  ;  a  nude  gold  figurine  of  mother  goddess  as  found 
in  Nandan^arh  ;  the  bowl  is  3|-"  in  diameter,  including  the  cover 
standing  3k  '  high  ;  the  cover  whicli  fits  wtth  perfect  accuracy  has  a 
handle  in  the  shape  of  a  fish,  hollowed  out  stuffed  witli  stars  of  gold 
leaf.  Piprawa  edifice  is  a  domed  mass  1 16  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base 
and  22  feet  high,  built  round  and  on  a  massive  stone  coffer  in  which  the 
Telics  of  the  body  of  Slkya-.Muni  were  enshrined  by  his  kinsmen  in 
about  450  B.  C  The  bricks  are  huge  slabs,  the  largest  being  16x  11  x3 
inches,  set  in  mud  mortar. 

Though  the  designs  are  apparently  reminiscent  of  Assyrian  and 
Persepolitan  prototypes,  the  modellings  are  more  animated  and  realistic. 
The  Pessepolitan  polish  is  so  fine  that  it  has  oily  touch  and  reflects 
images  even  after  centuries.  These  pillars  weigh  about  50  tons.  How 
these  heavy  pillars  like  Egyptian  obelisks  were  quarried,  carried  and  lifted 
at  that  ancient  time  are  intriguing.  At  the  Uailing  of  courtyard  at  the 
end  on  the  Pillar  of  BuJdhu's  walk,  there  is  a  ba'-rt-licf  of  a  full 
length  female  figurine  of  half  life  size.  Her  head,  face,  nose  and 
uplifted  hands  are  defaced.  But  her  torso  is  very  refined  with 
surprising  modernistic  anatomical  accuracy,  She  has  typical  slender 
waist  of  a  Yakshi.  She  is  draped  below  her  girdle  round  ht-r  hips. 
She  has  a  slender  neck  with  four  necklaces,  one  with  a  locket.  Her 
breasts  are  firm  and  globular.  And  as  both  the  shaft  and  the  base 
of  the  pillar  are  marked  with  Asakan  A  and  other  characters,  it  is 
of  about  3rd  century  B-  C. 

At  Kasrawad  of  2nd  century  B.  C.  of  the  Maurya  Guptas  and  at 
Mohenjodaro,  the  followitig  common  articles  have  been  found  :  tablets 
l'-5"  to  3'- 7";  perforated  pottery  to  sprinkle  water  on  bone  relics  ; 
pottery  cones  ;  spindles  with  more  than  one  hole  ;  circular  p.-bbles 
with  a  hole  ;  glazed  pottery.  Glazed  and  conical  potteries  have  also 
been  found  at  other  Maurya  sites  like  Ujjaini  and  Rairh.  Some 
potsherds  found  at  Mandal  Khoh  with  inscribed  ma  of  the  Mauryas  are 
exactly  like  those  of  Kasrawad.  A  terracotta  bull  found  at  Muheswar 
closely  resembles  such  terracottas  found  at  other  Maurya  sites  like 
Kasnagar.     Clay    spindles,    beads,    cleaning   brushes  found   at    Kasrawad 


106  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIEBT  INDIA 

Magada  is  named  after  the  warrior  tribe  Magadhah  of  the 
Sakas  who  with  Maga=Magi  as  priests,  Manasa  as  traders  and 
Mandagah=  Mandas  as  slaves  lived  in  Sakadvipa — Seistan  — 
Brahma  Puranam  20.  71. 

resemble  similar  objects  of  other  Maurya  sites.  The  huge  bricks 
20'xirx4"  are  found  at  others  Maurya  sites.  Triangular  bricks 
have  been  found  at  M,  Harappa  and  Kasrawai.  Triangular  wedge  shaped 
bricks  are  of  two  sizes  :  9.4"  long,  2.25''  thick,  5'25"  wide  at  one  end 
3.25"  wide  at  the  other  end.  11.5"  x  2.25"  x  6"  x  3.5",  M  has  7  strata  ; 
1st  is  1-2  feet  thick;  2nd  3-5  ft  ;  3rd  7-9-6"  ;  4th  12  13-6;  5th, 
15-16;  6th,  18-19;  7th.  38  39.  So  between  the  sixth  and  the  lowest 
there  is  a   difference   of  about  20  feet. 

This  20  feet  of  space  was  filled  with  the  mud  and  silts  of  the  Indus 
floods.  So  it  may  be  inferred  that  the  upper  end  of  the  seventh  strata 
terminated  in  early  Mauryan  settlements. 

A  colossal  capital  recovered  during  the  first  excavation  of  Pataliputra 
has  the  stepped  impost  block,  side  volutes  and  central  palmettes  of 
the  Persepoletan  order  ;  the  bead  and  reel,  labial  and  spiral  motifs 
on  the  lateral  face  are  all  of  western  Asiatic  origin  ;  and  the  rosette 
ornament  of  the  abacus  recalls  the  frame  of  the  great  friezes  at 
Persepolis.  There  are  rock-cut  domed  chambers  with  a  monolithic 
stone  column  in  the  centre,  equivalent  of  the  central  wooden  mast  of  a 
nomadic  tent  as  at  Mennapuram  and  Calicut. 

GopikK  cave  is  40' -5"  long,  19'-2"  broad,  both  ends  being, 
semi-circular.  The  walls  are  6' -6"  high  and  the  vaulted  roof  is 
4  feet  higher  still.  There  is  an  inscription  on  the  door  jamb  by 
Dasaratha,  dedicating  it  to  Ajivakas.  Vabiyaka.  Vadthika  and  Gopika 
caves  are  small.  But  they  also  bear  inscriptions  of  Dasaratha,  Lomas 
Risi,  Sattapanni  and  Sonbhandor  also  bear  inscriptions  of  Dasaratha, 
grandson  of  Asoka.  Lomas  Risi  cave  is  unfinished,  perhaps  due  to  a 
Assure  in  the  roof.  The  side  walls  of  the  outer  chamber  are  highly 
polished  ;  the  outer  wall  of  the  inner  chamber  is  dressed  only  ;  the 
inside  of  the  inner  chamber  has  been  left  rough.  Its  entrance  is 
carved  in  imitation  of  the  wooden  beams  of  a  Zulu  hut.  But  the 
pediment  is  decorated  with  a  herd  of  elephants.  Ramses  about  1257 
made  rock-cut  corridor  tombs  and  shrines  at  Harakhta  and  Haptha, 
consisting  of  a  portico  zvith  2  rows  of  pillars,  the  cave  walls  and 
pillars  covered  with  painted  sculptures  and  paintings.  The  samething 
we  find  in  Bhaja  Vihara. 

The  colossal  mutilated  standing  statue  about  8'  high  of  so  called 
male  Yaksha,  found  at  at  Parkhan,  of  3rd  century  B  C,  bearing  an  inscrip- 
tion in  Br.  script  of  Maurya  period,  reading  in  part,  made  by  Bhada 
/?<^<7W2—Gomitaka,  pupil  of  Kunika,  now  and  Mathura  Museum,  is  of 
polished  grey  Chunar  sandstone,  similar  to  that  used  for  Asokan  pillars. 
It  is  8  feet  8  inches  high  and  the  breadth  accross  the  shoulders  is  2  feet 
8  inches.  The  excessively  massive  body  which  possesses  considerable 
grandeur  is  wrapped  in  a  cloth  round  the  loins  by  means  of  a  flat  girdle, 
bound  round  the  chest.  Four  tassels  hang  down  on  the  back  from  a 
necklace  and  a  torque.  A  similar  statue  of  a  female,  6'7"  in  height, 
though  not  having  the  same  polished  finish,  has  been  found  near    Besnagar 


ARTS-TARFHA  107 

Suda77i  Cave  in  Barfibar  Hillg  is  hewn  in  the  pranito  ridj^'e. 
The  doorway  i3  doeply  inset  and  the  j.uubs  are  inclined  inward. 
To  the  left  of  it  in  'J  lined  inscription,  Asoka  records  its  dedica- 
tion to  the  Ajivakas  in  12th.  year  of  his  reipn.  It  is  S2'-9"  long, 
19'-6"  broad  and  the  vaulted  roof  rises  5'-0"  above  the  walls 
which  are  6'-9"  hifjh,  The  inner  chamber  is  circulur  with  a 
hemispherical  domed  roof,  all  hij^'h  polished.  Visva  Jopri  has 
2  chambers  and  a  verandah,  but  unfinished.  An  inscription 
on  the  right  hand  wall  of  the  outer  chamber  records  the  pift  of 
the  cave  to  the  Ajiviikas  in  his  12th  year.  Kama  Kauper  Cave  in 
the  south  of  the  ridge  has  a  rectangular  hall  SS'-b"  long,  14' 
broad.  G'-l"  high,  and  the  vaulted  roof  is  i'b"  higher  Kfill.  At 
the  western  end  there  is  a  raised  platform  7'-6"  long,  2'-6"  liroad 
and  I'-b*  high.  Walls  and  ceiling  highly  polished.  Asoka  in 
5  deep  cut  Brahrai  characters  records  its  dedication  to  the 
Ajivakas  in  his  19th  year.  Vahiyaka  and  Gopika  caves  are 
dedicated  to  Ajivakas  for  their  residential  purposes  during  the 
rainy  season  as  long  as  the  IMoon  and  the  Sun  endure  by 
Dasaratha  who  was  consecrated  as  king  after  Devanampiy* 
(vahiyaka  kubha  Dasalathena  devanam  piyena  anamia  liyan 
abhisetena  Ajivikehi  bhadamtelu  va  (  sani  )  sideyen  nisitha 
acamdam  suliyan. 

and  Bhilsa  She  wears  heavy  tresscs  of  hair  as  found  in  Bhnrhut  and 
Sanchi  ;  and  the  linked  belt  of  beaded  strands  and  the  double  breast 
chain.  The  finely  pleated  waist  cloth  is  held  at  the  hips  by  a  b<-It  with 
a  looped  clasp,  and  its  folds  are  treated  in  the  fashion  of  Sanchi  brackrt 
figures.  A  similarly  dressed  Yakshi,  known  as  cauri  bearer  has  been  found 
at  Didarganj,  Fatna  of  Sunga  2nd  century  B  C.  Two  Yaksh.as  in  Patna  M 
of  2nd  century  B.  ('.  are  inscribed  with  Nandi  and  Vardhana.  Yaksha 
Manibhadhra  from  Pawaya  is  of  Ist  century  B.  C,  now  in  Gwalior 
Muscum.  Two  portrait  head  sculptures  of  early  Sung  pt  riod  have  been 
found  at  Sarnalh,  of  polished  buff  sandstone.  They  are  remarkable  for 
their  anatomical  accuracy  and  facial  expression.  In  one.  hair  is  kept  in 
position  by  fillets  ;  there  is  a  large  circular  earlobe  ornament  with  a 
hole  ir.  the  center.  The  other  has  a  large  military  moustache, 
long  club,  symbol  of  penis  within  the  fold  of  his  arm  ;  and  holds 
a  ram  in  his  right  hand  ;  standing  valiantly  on  a  crouching  dwarf, 
Both  in  style  and  costune,  the  figure  is  closely  related  to  the  standing 
Yaksha  type  of  Barhut.  Kharosti  Kshairapa  Sakas  imitated  Iranians 
more  directly.  The  Lion  Capital  with  the  Kharosthi  inscription  w.as 
dedicated  by  the  queen  of  Satrap  Rajubula  about  30  B.  C.  Kushans 
adopted  the  naturalistic  Greco-Romanized  style,  usually  in  mottled 
red  sandstone  of  Sikri,  Kushan  king  is  seated  on  a  lion  throne  with 
Are  altar  engraved  on  the  pedastal,  holding  a  scepter  in  one  hand 
and  sword  hilt  in  another  ;  Mongoloid  shaven  face,  round  cap  on  the 
head  ;  wears  a  tunic,  padded  coat  hnd  trousers  like  the  Chinese,  Central 
Asian  highiieavy  boots.  Even  the  images  of  Snrya  (Mihir)  are  represented 
in  the  same  costume.  Buddha.  Bodhisattvas  and  Jaina  images  of 
Kankali  Kila,  now  in  Lucknow  Museum^  and  Ssrnath,  have  roundish 
refined   shaven    face  ;  their  breasts    are   somewhat   swollen,    though    on   a 


108  THE  LITEEABT  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Kushans  :— Statue  of  Wima  (Vima)  Kadphises,  found  at  Mat, 
6'-iO",  square  base  3'-3".  The  right  hand  is  raised  in  front 
of  the  breast  which  held  a  sword  of  which  only  the  portion  of 
'the  belt  is  traceable,  and  the  left  hand  rested  on  the  scabbard 
laid  across  the  knees.  Dressed  in  a  long  sleeved  tunic  with 
richly  embroidered  border.  The  tunic  is  bespangled  with 
rosettes.  The  heavy  top  boots  are  decorated  with  a  vine 
pjttern.  There  is  a  strap  round  each  boot  beneath  the  ankles 
and  a  second  strap  under  the  heel.  The  feet  are  placed  on 
a  long  stool  28"xl3"x3J",  decorated  with  flowers.  The  space 
on  the  top  of  the  stool -j^ada^i^/ta— bears  between  the  feet 
a  Brahmi  inscription  in  4  Imes  :  J.  Maharaja  Rajatiraja  Deva- 
putra  2.  Kushanaputro  Shahi  Vema  takshamasya  (takshama, 
an  Iranian  word,    meaning,   owner  of  strong  steed)    3.    Bakana- 

patino.       Huma devakuJa  — temple — karila- constructed     4 

aramo  — garden  -  pushkarini -a  tank  -  udapanam  (a  well)  Ga 
do  ko  tha  ko  Standing  figure  4'— 9"  found  at  Mathura,  carved 
in  the  round,  consisting  of  an  overcoat  reaching  down  to  the 
knees.  There  is  a  sword  hanging  on  the  left  thigh,  fastened 
by  a  strap  round  the  right  hip  Only  a  trace  of  the  sword 
with  his  left  hand.  The  right  hand  is  lost.  Below  the  garment, 
a  portion  of  the  right  leg  remains,  showing  folded  trousers  on 
the  left  portion  of  the  robe,  there  is  a  fragmentary  inscription 
in  Brahmi— SAasfa/ia  =  Cbastana  of  Ujjain. 

masculine  body,  showing  tremendous  physical  and  mental  energy. 
The  drapery  is  Romanized.  Kaniska  Relic  Casket  is  a  gilt  copper 
alloy  cylinder  and  lid  ;  total  height  7f  inches.  Inside  a  very  polished 
barrel  shaped  crystal  reliquary,  hollowed  out  to  half  its  depth,  the  mouth 
closed  by  a  clay  seal,  bearing  the  impress  of  the  figure  of  an  elephant, 
three  small  calcined  bones  were  {ound  — the  s  a  rims  of  Sakya — deposited 
by  Kaniska  in  the  stupa  of  Polusha-pulo.  On  the  lid  are  seated 
nimbate  Buddha  and  two  Bodhisattvas,  and  around  the  ricn  a  series  of 
rfiying  geese  with  extended  wings  ;  on  the  cylinder  are  seated  Buddha, 
seated  between  Kaniska,  the  sun,  the  moon,  deities  crowning  him,  and 
the  garland  bearing  Erotes  =  Roman  Cupido. 

Eukratides  had  their  capital  at  Taxila ;  Euthydemus  at  Sakala  = 
Sialkot.  In  order  to  induce  the  Sungas  to  make  a  common  cause  to 
fight  Demetrios,  Heliodora,  son  of  Diya.  ambassador  of  Yavana  Amtalikita 
(Antiakidas,  ruler  of  Taxila)  to  Bhagabhadra  (  Sunga  Viceroy,  Bhaga 
of  the  Puranas.  11-1-82  ;  Sunga  rule  ends  in  72  B.  C  )  erected  in  honour  to 
Vasudeva  in  126  B.  C,  a  pillar  (a  Dorian  pillar  with  Persepolitan  cap  on 
which  there  was  a  winged  eagle  — Garuda  Dhavja  which  is  now  missing) 
at  Vidisa  (Besnagar).  At  Shinkot  in  Bajaur,  a  relic  casket  with  an 
inscription  in  Kharosthi  by  Vijaya  Mitra,  dated  25th  day  of  Vaisakha, 
in  the  fifth  year  of  the  reign  of  Maharaja  Minendra  (Menander  161- 
155  B.C.).  written  by  Anamkaya  (  Gk  anagkaios  =  relative)  Vispila.  Relief 
figures  of  Andhras.  including  Satakarni  Western  Malawa  wws  however 
occupied  by  Andhra  Satakarni,  the  contemporary  of  Kharvela,  defeating 
:  Pushyamitra  Sungas.  Robust  and  energetic  Andhra  king  with  a  crown  on  hig 
head,  heavy  earring  in  his  ears,  the  girdle  and  a  loin  cloth,  and  his  buxom 


ARTS  — KUt^HANB  109 

Kaniska  statue  of  Mathura  is  the  first  undonbted  portrait 
image,  found  in  the  country.  Unfortunately  head  and  anna 
are  missing  (in  Kaniska  coins  however,  he  has  a  roundish  fiice, 
large  strong  nose,  full  beard,  heavy  eye  brows,  full-lipped  mouth 
with  a  tall  cap  on  his  head).  It  is  life  size  and  Kaniska  is  shown 
standing  in  front,  his  right  hand  on  a  mace  and  his  left  clasping 
the  hilt  of  a  sword.  He  wears  a  tunic  reaching  to  the  kneen  and 
held  round  the  tonic  by  a  girdle,  two  square  plaques,  probably  of 
gold,  showing  in  front.  A  long  upper  coat  falls  to  below  the 
knees.  But  the  most  conspicuous  are  the  heavy  top  boots  with 
strafs  round  the  ankles,  seemigly  for  spurs.  In  Brahrai  charac- 
ters right  across  the  garment  -  Mahi raja  R.ijatiraja  Devaputra 
Kaniska — The  King,    the    King    of  Kings,  son  of  gods — Kauiska. 

pretty  queen  with  elaborate  coiffure,  heavy  ringed  earring  in  the  ear,  high 
globular  breasts,  slender  waist,  very  large  pelvis,  and  ornamental  broad  girdle 
with  a  clasp  on  Mount  of  Venus,  round  anklets,  both  in  life  size  high  reliefs 
with  fine  proud  face,  nose  and  eyes  on  the  verandah  of  the  chaityTi  hall  of 
Karli  of  1st  century  B.  C.  Two  life  size  pairs  of  .Andhra  royal  donars  in 
high  relief  on  the  verandah  of  Chaitya  Hall  of  Kinheri  of  the  same  age, 
if  not  a  little  earlier.  Two  buxom  nudes  on  the  two  jambs  from  Bhutesvar 
in  Mathura  M,  1.  40  m  of  130  A  D.  are  strikingly  realistic  with  small 
heads,  full  breasts,  narrow  waists,  curly  hair  on  mons  veneris  under 
ornamental  girdles,  prominent  vulva,  wide  pelvis,  fat  thighs,  short  legs 
with  heavy  anklets,  standing  on  dwarfs. 

The  female  mother  goddess  divinities  of  the  Sanga,  Andhra  and 
Kushans  have  Mongoloid  face,  eyes  and  medium  nose,  fleshy  lips, 
elaborate  coiffure,  large  circular  disk  earrings,  hanging  stringed 
necklaces  between  high  globular  breasts,  heavy  girdles,  either  robed 
in  a  diaphaneous  garment,  but  usually  nude,  their  exaggerated  vulva 
is  displayed  (also  in  the  terracottas  of  Mauryas)  depilated.  A  monolithic 
pillar  with  the  carved  image  of  a  Yakshi  in  high  relief  has  been 
found  at  Rajasan  in  Mujjaffur  Dt.  A  Siva  Lingam  has  been  found  at 
Bhita  with  a  Brahmi  inscription,  now  in  Lucknow  Museum  ;  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  phallus  there  have  been  a  head  and  a  bust,  the  right 
hand  giving  blessing  (abhaya  mudr  i)  and  the  left  hand  holding  a 
water  vessel  ;  the  remaining  two  heads  testicles)  are  in  low  relief  in 
a  position  corresponding  to  the  waist  line  of  the  terminal  bust  and 
below  the  heads  the  suture  of  the  phallus  is  shown.  The  earlier  types 
of  terracottas  from  Mathura  and  Pataliputra  are  similar  even  to  those 
of  old  Mohenjodaro  in  respect  to  the  horns  of  the  headress.  Gudimallam 
Lingam  near  Renigunta  is  a  realistic  cirucumcized  phallus  of  polished 
sandstone  with  the  figure  of  Nakulesa  carved  on  its  body.  The  deity 
is  of  Yaksa  type  with  a  headress,  bracelets,  armlets  and  a  heavy  necklace. 
A  loin  cloth  is  held  by  a  looped  waist  string.  But  the  circumciz-.^d  penis 
is  made  visible.  In  his  left  hand  there  is  a  water  vessel  from  which 
water  flows  On  the  Railing  Pillar  of  MathurS,  there  is  a  pretty  woman, 
very  naturalistic,  wearing  head  hair  locks  as  a  serpent's  hood,  heavy 
earrings,  chain  necklace,  a  number  of  bracelets,  a  thick  undulating 
girdle,  holding  a  piece  of  cloth  around  her  right  loin  and  holding 
the   other   end    with  her   left  hand  ;    and  in   right   hand  showing  a    rattle 


110  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

A  bearded  soldier  wearing  a  tall  cap  oa  the  head,  low  acd 
wide  necked  jacket,  kept  in  place  by  a  west  belt  and  trousers 
puifed  up  and  sewen  like  the  Chinese,  a  high  boot,  and  holding 
in   left    hand    a   dagger   and    in  the   right    an    iron   mace    club. 

which  a  child  is  trying  to  reach,  and  a  woman  watching  it  by 
exposing   her   head   over    hanging    curtain  in  the   background. 

We  find  Bhajavihara  near  Puna  of  early  Sunga  period  and  other 
numerous  cave  temples.  Vedisa  Caitya  Hall  was  excavated  about  175 
B.  C.  almost  in  imitation  of  Barabar  cave  shrines,  Bhaja  is  60'  long 
27'  wide  with  a  semicircular  apse  at  the  back,  having  an  aisle, 
3%,  wide  separated  from  the  nave  by  27  plain  octagonal  shafts  11-1' 
high  in  2  rows  At  the  west  end,  a  group  of  three  cells  is  divided  by 
the  verandah  by  a  pillaster  and  pillar  with  a  freeze  below.  Digoba  is 
11'  in  diameter  and  10'  feet  high.  At  the  west  end  of  the  verandah 
a  ruler  is  driving  in  a  four  horsed  chariot,  accompanied  by  two  women, 
one  bearing  a  Chatra  and  the  other  the  Chari.  Figures  on  horse  back 
form  the  escort,  and  of  these  the  female  rider  has  got  a  stirrup.  The 
chariot  is  being  driven  across  the  back  of  women  with  large  breasts 
and  protuberent  abdomen.  A  king  with  sharp  face  and  nose  and  tall 
turban,  wearing  a  long  and  heavy  floral  wreath  is  riding  an  elephant  ; 
behind  him  is  seated  a  man  carrying  a  standard.  In  high  relief  on 
the  screen  wall  of  the  verandah  one  with  a  defaced  face  is  examining 
a,  sword  with  both  of  his  hands  in  a  standing  posture,  wearing  armored 
armlets  and  bracelets.  In  the  Ramgarh  Hill  in  Sirguja  C.  I.  there 
is  Sitabenga  cave  theatre  with  inscription  in  Asokan  Brahmi 
characters.  On  the  highest  peak  of  Ramgarh  Hill,  about  2000  feet  high, 
there  is  an  ancient  temple,  partly  in  ruins,  to  which  pilgrims  still 
go  for  worship.  The  cave  lies  in  the  western  slope  of  the  northern  part 
of  the  hill.  To  reach  the  cave  one  has  to  pass  through  a  natural  tunnel 
180  feet  long,  large  enough  through  which  elephants  can  easily  pass  for 
which  it  is  called  Hkthipjl.  At  the  end  of  the  tunnel  there  is  a  small 
plateau  at  the  end  of  which  rises  a  wood-crested  crescent  shaped  hill. 
There  are  two  caves,  in  Ramgarh  Hill,  the  northern  called  Sitabenga 
and  the  southern  Jogimara.  The  interior  Sitabenga  cave  is  oblong, 
46  feet  by  24  feet.  On  three  sides  are  broad  rock  cut  terraced  seats  2\  feet 
high  and  7  feet  wide.  Near  the  entrance  two  holes  have  been  cut  in 
the  floor  to  hold  wooden  posts  to  hang  a  curtain.  The  distinguished 
guests  must  have  sat  on  the  benches  along  the  wall  and  the  dramatic 
performance,  dancing  and  poetic  recitals  with  appropriate  gestures 
would  have  taken  place  in  front  of  the  curtain.  In  front  of  the  cave 
there  is  a  a  small  amphitheatre,  almost  in  Greek  style,  consisting  of 
rock  cut  benches  rising  in  terraces  above  each  other,  there  is  enough 
space  in  front  of  the  amphitheatre  to  erect  a  stage  in  the  open  air. 
The  amphitheatre  has  a  seating  capacity  of  more  than  50  people. 
Lenasobhika,  found  in  a  Mathura  inscription,  means  a  cai^eactress. 
In  Jogimara  cave  there  are  some  oldest  fresco  paintings.  Fresco  is 
divided  into  concentric  circles  ;  in  the  centre  a  man  is  seated  under  a 
tree  with  dancing  girls  and  musicians  to  the  left,  a  procession  including  an 
elephant  to  the  right.  A  nude  male,  perhaps  a  Jaina,  is  seated,  attended  by 
three  clothed  men  standing.  Jogimara  inscription  mentions  Devadasi 
Sutamuka,  loved  by  Devadinna  of  Bar.lnasi,  rupadaksha— connoisseur  of 
beauty — by   profession. 


ARTS-8UN0A  m 


A  nude  female  with  heavy  rinpjed  earrinj^s,  armlets,  anklets, 
double  girdle,  pluckinjt  Asoka  (lowers  with  her  left  hand! 
while  htjlding  a  sword  hilt  in  her  right  arm.  staiulmg  on  a 
pedastal  with  two  lions  as  supports.  A  monolithic  Lini^am 
whose  glai^spenis  is  being  decorated  with  a  floral  wreath"  by 
a  woman  while  a  man  is  carved  on  it  in  the  Yaksha  dress. 


Kinn^ira  Mithuna  Phque  2'  2"  x  2'  2"  x  4"  of  Ahicchatra  of  Kushan 
period.  The  centaur«.\ss  with  a  human  female  i)ust  joincl  to  the  lower 
part  of  a  mare  is  galloping  on  a  hill  terrain,  carrying  on  her  back  her 
human  husband  who  is  fondingly  caressing  the  chin  of  the  centauress 
with  the  tingures  of  his  right  hand  while  holding  a  fii:)wery  shaft  on 
the  left.     In    the   upper  right  corner  there  is  a  flying  garland  bearer. 

Bharhut    Eastern      Gateway   at     least    was    erected  during    the   Sung 

Dynasty    (185-173  B   C.)  according    to    an    inscription  — Kapa    Bhutisa— 

Vatsi    putrasa   Vadhapl    (lasa)    Dhanabhuti-,a     dmam— Vedika    Torana 

ca    Ratnagiha   Chava    Buddhapujiye.     Gifts   of  Diianabhuti    of  Mathura, 

most     likely     the     same    person,    included    likewise    Vtdika    (an    open 

pillared    hall   for   reciting  sacred     texts),    Torana    (gateway  :    Jap   Torii) 

and    Ratnagriha   (treasury,    where   valuable   gifts   and   cash    endowments 

were   kept^.  only   49  pillars   out  of  89,    and    80   railbars  out   of  228  have 

been    found.     The     composite   pillars    of   the     gateway,    made   up   of   4 

clustered    columns    with    modified    Persipolitan    capitals  contain   certain 

mason    marks    in  Kharosthi     characters.     The    Railing    which    was    only 

found    in     situ    contains    sculpiures     of     great     excellence     particularly 

incidents   of    Buddha's   life,    as  on    Prasenjit   pillar,    Prasenjit   with    his 

queen     Mnllika,     Prasenjit    in  a  four  horsed   chariot   going   to    Dharma 

Cakra    (Raja     Pasenji    Kosalo    Bhagavato    Dhamo    Cakam',      Aj'itasatru 

on    his     elephant,     accompanied     by     dancing     girls     in     a    procession 

(Aj'itasatru    Pillar  :     Aj  Uasatru     Bhagavata     vandhe),    J.-tavana   Vih'ira 

in   the   mango  orchard   of    Sravasti     with     Anuhpindeka     as    a   donor, 

medilion    busts  of   three    kings    and      two   queens,     Nigi    king's    'Nfiga 

Raja   Cakavako,  Erapato    Naga   R  ja    Bhagovato  vandatc),    30   Yakshas 

and    Yakshis    (Ganagila,    Suciloma.    Chandl.     Sudarsanfi)    with    Kuvera 

(Kupiro   Yakho)   as   their   king.    Sirima    the     courtesan,    with   excellent 

jack   trees,    floral   designs,     horses,     deers     and   elephants,   all    in    high 

relief.    Buddha   Gaya    has   some     interesting     inscriptions     on    the  old 

stone    Railing  :    Rano     Indagimitia     (  sa     pasada     Chetika  )     Sirimaye 

(danai)=The     gift     of     the     female      superintendent     Sirima    of   Rino 

Indragni    Mitra.     Rano    Brahma  Mitra    pajavatiye    Nlgadevayc  d  mam- 

the     gift     of    Naga     Devi,     the     concubine   of     Rano    Brahma   Mitra, 

(Brihaspati     Mitra,     ruler    of     Magadha     in       Kharvela     Hathi[;umpha 

Inscription),    Ayaye    (arya  =  noble  lady)    Kurangiye    danam.     A  turbined 

man  as   Sarya  is   driving   one   wheeled   chariot     with   four   horses.     The 

chariot   shows  a  high   frame   in  front.     Two     Yakshis,    representing  Ush^ 

and   Surya,    with    their  drawn    bows  and  arrows,  are  driving  out  darkness. 

In    the   Vedas,  Siirya  is  supposed  to  have  7  steeds.     In    Sasanian   art  the 

moon  is    a  female  deity  like   Gk.    Selene,  and    her   chariot    is   drawn   by 

cows  ;    but  the   sun  in     Sasanian    and      Mithraic     mythology    is    a   male 

god   and   his   chariot    is  drawn    by  four  white   steeds.     It    is   represented 

thus  at    Khair   Khana.      In     tetradrachma     of   Platon     of   the    Eastern 

Greeks,   Helios   is   represented   as   driving  a  chariot  drawn   by  4  horses. 


112  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  CF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Guptas  excelled  the  Kushang  both  in  architectare,  and 
sculptures,  particularly  in  metalic  works.  Their  works  were 
more  refined  aud  idealized.  The  copper  Buddha,  7  feet  6 
inches,  found  at  Sultanganj,  Bhagalpur,  now  in  Birmingham 
Museum,  is  a  notable  example  of  their  workmanship  of  about 
400  A.D.  It  weighs  more  than  a  ton.  Buddha  has  fine  long 
nose,  refined  shaven  face,  beautiful  forehead  and  half-closed 
eyes;  but  the  lips  are  flsshy  and  the  ear  lobes  are  distended. 
There  ia  a  skull  cap  on  the  head,  or  early  hairs  are  formed  as  a 
terraced  mound.  The  robe  falling  up  to  the  ankles  is  very 
diaphaneous,  displaying  every  part  of  the  body,  including  a 
small  penis.  A  sandstone  image  of  Narasimha— a  lion  headed 
standing  man,  has  been  found  at  Besnagar,  now  in  Gwalior  M. 

Al  Bamiyan  two  armed  females  on  both  sides  of  Bodhisattva  guard  him. 
Zodiac  signs  i  the  standing  figure  of  a  bull  (Vrisha)  ;  a  standing  lion 
(Simha)  ;  in  the  circular  zone  of  a  medallion,  the  bust  of  a  damsel 
with  heavy  braids  of  hair  round  her  head  on  which  there  are  two 
basketfuls  of  fruits  and  grains  like  the  Roman  Ceres,  instead  of  the 
figure  of  a  damsel  in  a  floating  boat  as  Kanya  ;  Sirima  sitting  with  her  legs 
apart  exposing  her  vulva,  a  floral  crown  on  her  head  and  a  flower  in 
her  hand  ;  Centaur  with  the  upper  part  of  a  man  and  the  body  of  a  bull  as 
Dhanu  ;  the  upper  part  of  a  boy  with  the  lower  part  of  a  dolphin  as  Makara 
(in  Gk.  mythology  Eros  =  Cupid  is  a  mischievious  boy  and  is  associated 
with  dolphin  ;  in  the  Puranas  K^ma  Deva  had  the  dolphin  on  his 
standard  and  was  called  Makara-dvaja)  ;  a  nude  human  pair,  copulating 
in  a  standing  posture  in  the  granite  Gate  Pillar  of  the  Middle  Panel  ; 
a  man  and  a  woman  sitting  in  an  amorous  mood,  the  man  holding  a  flower 
in  his  hand  while  there  is  a  mace  by  the  side  of  a  woman  ;  a  lion  copula- 
ting a  doe,  as  mentioned  in  Vissa  sabhojana  Jataka  93  as  Mithuna.  A 
winged  horse  =  Pegasus  ;  a  winged  lion  =  Sphnix  ;  a  winged  antelope. 

The  female  image  stuco  of  Rajgir  with  realistic  face  and  breasts  ; 
but  the  skirt  she  puts  on  is  made  so  transparent  that  even  her  pubic 
hairy  triangle  is  made  visible  as  the  wife  of  Egyptian  Mycernus  (now  in 
Boston  Museum,  as  Hathor  with  Mycernus,  now  in  Cairo  M).  Naturalistic 
realism  and  transparency  of  garb  are  typical  characteristics  of  Later 
Andhras  of  Amaravati  and  particularly  of  Gupta  arts.  Siva  as  an  ascetic  at 
Deogarh  ;  beneath  his  loin  cloth  his  phallus  is  shrinking,  though  the 
the  Aspsaras  in  their  various  postures  are  trying  their  best  to  rouse 
his  libido  The  Iron  pillar  at  Mehrauli  near.  Delhi  of  Chandra  Gupta  II 
(375-413)  is  23  feet  8  inches  high.  It  has  a  Persepolitan  lotus  bell  capital. 
There  is  an  iron  column  at  Dhar  over  42  feet  in  length  of  321  A.D. 
Samudra  Gupta's  rudely  sculptured  stone  horse,  found  at  Kheri,  now 
in  Lucknow  Museum,  may  not  have  the  merit  of  the  fine  galloping 
horse  on  the  capital  of  the  Asokan  column  at  Sarnath,  but  it  is  of 
historic  importance.  A  broken  head  has  been  found  at  Taxila  which 
almost  looks  like  a  Roman  senator.  Siva  Nataraja,  a  figure  in  bronze 
of  early  tenth  century  in  India  Museum,  dancing  his  cosmic  dance,  is 
of  extra-ordinary  grace  and  strength,  showing  his  four  arms,  encircled 
by  the  flaming  nimbas  of  the  manifest  universe.  It  was  the  god  of 
the  Cholas  who  built  up  Chidambaram  for  its  sanctuary  ;  it  was  the 
Ananda  Tandava— the  Dance  of  Joy-  of  Nataraja  Siva. 


ARTS-nARAPP\  CULTURE  ll8 

Harappa  cultural  elements  have  been  found  in  over  60  sites  between 
Rupar  in  Amballa  where  the  Sutlaj  emerges  into  the  plains,  on  the  Hanks 
of  the  dried  beds  of  Satadru,  Drishadvati  and  Sarasvati  upto  Sulkagru  dor 
near  the  coast  of  the  Arabian  Sea  Harapp'i  culture  canncH  bo  dated 
beyond  c.  250J  B  C.  For  a  lozcnce-shaped  seal  from  Harappi  and 
a  round  seal  of  Chanhudaro  bear  a  splayed  eagle  such  as  occurs  at  Susa 
C.  2-100  or  at  Tell  Brack  in  N.  Syria  of  C.  2100.  At  Rupar,  Harappa 
culture  is  buried  30^- 40' below  the  present  surface  of  bronze  implenienis. 
— beads,  terracottas,  chert  blades,  earthenware,  seatite  beads  with  3 
symbols  of  Indus  script,  sun-baked  brick  granaries,  and  ramparts  (a may. 
Granaries  were  found  in  big  cities  in  Babylonia  and  E:.;ypt,  attached  to 
temples  or  courts  as  treasuries  on  the  canils,  as  in  Harappa,  for  the 
collection  of  taxes  in  kind  or  labor.  Terracotta  nude  female  figurines 
are  the  earth  mother  goddesses  of  \V  Asia  or  peptecoy  Venuses  of  Roman 
Gaul.  The  image  of  unicorn  carried  in  procession  recalls  the  animal 
standard  which  represented  the  nomes  of  E^ypt.  Harappa  cultures  flourish- 
ed for  about  a  millenium.  Then  about  140J,  came  a  defferent  people, 
possibly  Aryans,  whose  war  implements  consisted  of  iron  in  addition  to 
bronze,  with  painted  grey  vvare,  a  fine  grey  pottery,  painlel  with  designs 
in  black.  600-203  8  C  saw  the  rule  of  the  Mauryas.  The  town  dweller 
deposited  the  refuse  and  sewage  of  liis  house  in  deep  pits,  lined  with 
burnt  clay  rings.  Once  the  pit  was  filled,  others  were  sunk  beyond  it. 
A  fine  stone  disc,  carved  with  the  image  of  the  goddess  of  fertility,  bone 
and  ivory  combs,  hair  pins,  styli,  toys  of  baked  clays  have  been  found  of 
the  Maurya  period,  Mauryas  were  followed  l)y  Sungas  about  200  B.  C. 
Sungas  introduced  voluptuous  Yaksha  and  Yakshi  images.  Yaudheya  and 
Audumbara  coins  have  been  found.  Then  came  Kushans.  600  Vasudeva 
coins  have  been  found.  Later  came  the  Guptas  in  fifth  century.  \ 
Candra  Gupta  gold  coin  with  his  Licchavi  princess  has  I)een  found.  Gupta 
terracottas  include  a  fine  figure  of  a  sitting  musician,  A  set  of  ritual  silver 
utensils  consists  of  an  incense  burner,  ladle  and  a  ringed  chain. 

Gift  of  Sunga  -  Ka  putasa  Indagi  -  Mitasa  pajavati  ye  Jiva  -  putaye 
Kurangiye  diinam  (of  Kurangi,  daughter  of  Jiva,  beloved  of  Indagni  Mitra, 
son  of  K-i,  on  the  Kurangi  pillar  near  the  NE  corner  of  Railing. 
Bodh  Gaya.  There  is  a  lifesize  strikingly  naturalistic  figure  of  a 
Yakshi,  clinging  to  a  tree,  her  right  foot  is  being  supported  by  a  male 
figure  ;  unfortunately  her  face  has  been  chiffed  off  by  ttie  iconoclasts.  On  a 
pillar  on  Buddha's  canopied  walk,  there  is  a  life-size  standing  maiden 
with  her  forefinger  on  her  lips  ;  the  thick  and  heavy  locks  of  her  head 
are  plaited  and  interwreathed  with  fillets,  and  over  the  head,  there  is 
an  embroidered  skull  cap  ;  her  ornamental  girdles  are  holding  a  piece 
of  cloth  falling  up  to  her  ankles,  but  exposing  fully  very  thick  and  curly 
pubic  hair  ;  her  feet  rest  upon  a  large  mouthed  Persepolitan  vase,  placed 
upon  4  steps,  each  upper  step  smaller  than  the  lower  one. 

An  inscription  in  Chinese  at  Mah'ibodhi  :  *•  This  stupa  was 
erected  by  the  emperor  and  empress  of  the  Great  Sung  Dynasty  — in 
memory  of  his  Imperial  Majesty  Tai  Tsung.  By  command  of  his  Imperial 
Majesty  our  divinely  most  enlightened,  most  gljrious,  most  virtujus. 
most  filial  sovereign  of  the  Great  Sung  Dynasty  and  of  her  Imperial 
Majesty— our  most  graceous,  most  virtuous  and  most  compas- 
sionate    empress,     I     the  Buddhist   priest  Hui-wen   have   been     humbly 

8 


114  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

commissioned  to  proceed  to  the  country  of  Magadha  and  to  erect  on 
behalf  of  his  departed  Imperial  Majesty,  Tai—Tsung— the  humane, 
orthodox,  deserving  and  divinely  virtuous." 

Hathi  Gumpha  is  almost  a  natural  cavern  in  the  sandstone 
TJdayagiri  Hill  of  Orissa  ;  it  contains  the  Kharvela  inscription  of  161 
B.  C.  Mancapuri  cave  contains  another  Kharvela  inscription,  and  a 
crudely  executed  frieze  where  a  female  wears  a  mural  crown  Ananta 
Rani  and  Ganesa  Gumphas  are  of  150  -  50  B.  C.  On  the  pediment  of 
Ananta,  M  lya  Devi  stands  with  2  elephants  on  her  both  sides,  known 
later  as  Gaja-Lakshmi  of  the  Hindus  ;  Ganesa  and  Rani  are  two  storied 
caves,  an  Indo  -  Persepolitan  pilaster,  a  square  column  with  circlets  on  a 
large  mouthed  vase,  placed  on  a  stepped  square  base  with  friezes  in 
basreliefs,  interrupted  by  cell  doorways  at  the  back  of  the  verandah. 
Ganesa  Gumpha  contains  a  replica  of  the  Rani.  The  other  basrelief 
contains  15  figures  and  two  elephants,  scenes  of  hunting  and  fighting.  Rani 
Gumpha  also  has  a  basrelief  representing  a  procession  of  Persanath. 

Rani  Ka  Nur  fqueen's  palace),  which  is  close  to  Ganesa,  is  two- 
storied.  On  the  ground  floor,  it  has  a  pillared  verandah  43^  long  and 
opens  into  3  cells,  the  central  one  having  3  doors,  the  lateral  ones  only 
two  each.  In  the  upper  storey  the  verandah  is  63'  long  and  opens  into 
4  cells  with  two  doors  in  each.  There  is  a  dramatic  basrelief  of  4  males 
and  4  females  in  4  groups.  A  man  is  asleep  at  the  doorway  and  a 
sitting  woman  watching  him.  A  man  and  a  woman  are  engazsd  in  a 
combat  with  swords  and  shields.  On  the  extreme  right,  a  man  is  carrying 
off  in  his  arm  an  amazon  =  a  fighting  female  who  still  carries  her  shield 
in  her  arm  and  has  dropped  her  sword.  At  the  north  end  of  the 
verandah  there  are  lifesize  high  reliefs  ;  a  Bacchic  woman  riding  astride 
a  lion  ;  near  it  is  a  figure  of  a  warrior  in  a  short  tunic  or  kilt,  reaching 
to  the  knee  with  a  scarp  thrown  over  the  left  shoulder  and  knotted  on  the 
right  ;  on  his  left  side  hangs  a  stout  sword  of  Roman  type  and  on  his 
feet  he  wears  boots  reaching  to  the  calf  of  the  leg.  It  is  likely  to  be  a 
representative  of  the  Yavana  Demetrius,  soldiers  that  penetrated  into 
Orissa.  Svargapuri  and  Manchapuri  are  2 -storied  oldest  dormi- 
tories by  the  chief  queen  of  Kharvela.  The  lower  part  of  Mancapuri 
cave  floor  is  20'  below  the  surrounding  ground  level  ;  two  side  rooms  on 
the  sides  of  the  verandah  are  supported  by  heavy  pillars.  Along  the 
backside  of  the  verandah  runs  a  stone  bench  for  the  Jaina  monks. 
Each  of  five  doorways  and  on  each  of  the  pilaster  there  is  a  cruciform 
capital  on  which  are  seated  winged  lions  of  Persepositan  desingn.  A 
broken  piece  of  stone  slab  in  high  relief  of  early  sixth  century  is  in 
Bhuvanesvara  Musuem.  A  woman  is  leaning  on  a  cot  (the  head  and 
the  upper  part  of  her  body  is  missing),  with  her  left  hand  bedecked  with 
an  armlet  and  a  wristlet  on  her  vulva,  her  waist  girdle  is  in  two  courses 
of  round  beads.  A  man  is  seated  in  front  of  her  on  the  cot,  thereby 
hiding  her  thighs,  with  his  right  leg  vertical  and  the  left  leg  laid  fiat,  a 
Jata-mukuta  as  arranged  in  Buddha  and  Likulusa  figures  of  Gupta  type, 
Patra  Kundalas  in  the  ears,  a  necklet  of  a  single  course  of  beads  as  in 
Gupta  style  ;  from  his  Urdhva  Medhra  (erect  penis)  there  is  a  vigorous 
upward  flow  of  semen  which  is  received  in  a  cup  by  another  man  in 
the  left  from  which  he  is  drinking.  In  Ram  (1.  36)  it  is  mentioned  that 
Siva  was  engazed  in  sexual  embrace  v/ith  Uma  for  100  years  without 
any  discharge   of  semen.     This  annoyed  the    Devas.    Devas  counselled  and 


ABTS— JAINA  AT.IGAPATA3  115 

asked    Siva   to   discontinue   his   sexual   union   wiih   Um'i     Siva    ni;r(jc(l. 
though  Unifi  protested,  becoming  angry,  being  left    ungratified,    but   asked 
the  Devas  as  to  who    would  receive  his  surging  semen.     Indra  was  deputed 
for  the  task.     Therefore  Kumara  [K.  rtekeya;  is  called  Agni  Sam'jhava. 

A  symmetrical  microlith  found  at  Laughnaj  Gujarat,  with  unicorn 
rhinoceros,  shoulder  blade  as  hanuner,  and  a  few  other  niicrolithic  sites  of 
India,  is  made  from  a  thick  flake  with  a  lilgh  rib  by  the  method  of  break- 
ing one  of  the  sides  obliquely  away  until  a  sharp  pjint  is  obtained -an 
arrowhead --which  is  common  witli  Australian  microliihs,  l)ut  quite 
different  from  the  microliths  from  the  Wilton  of  5  Africa  .Man  182,  Sept 
1952  .  Cave  paintings  at  Mahadeo  Hills  and  Kolihar  paintings,  in  red 
ochre,  portraying  dancing  human  figures,  found  with  microliths,  seem  to 
be  primitive  prehistoric  like  the  .Aurignacian  gaffili  of  Spain  and  Saiiara 
of  Negro-Hamitic  peoples.  But  all  rock  paintings  are  not  prehistoric. 
Swords,  shields,  horse  riding  and  ICharosihi  inscriptions  of  .Mandory  and 
Gandale  rock  engravings  near  Attok  ;  swords,  shields,  palanquins  and 
elephant /^/ze/ia/^^  of  Gambogaddi  Hill,  Jamak  handi  state;  horse  riding 
at  Bangalore  indicate  that  they  were  of  historic  times.  In  a  cave  at 
Bhaldaros  is  painted  a  wounded  wild  boar  with  m  ^uth  open,  suggesting 
pain  ;  there  is  an  arrow  shaft  at  thi  back.  .At  Likhunia  the  capture  of  a 
wild  elepliant  by  horsemen  with  tlie  help  of  a  tame  elephant.  Near 
Bijoyagarh  fort  a  low  relief  on  the  rock  of  a  warrior  and  a  lion.  In  one 
of  the  caves  on  the  Fort  Hill  have  been  recorded  two  dozen  inscriptions  in 
red  ochre  ol  5-Sth.  century  A.  D.  , 

The  votive  tablet -by  Ganiki  Lenisobhika  at  the  Niganthan-im 
Arhatatoma  in  Brahmi  script  of  the  later  part  of  1st  century  B.  C  in 
mottled  red  sandstone,  now  in  Mathura  Museum,  was  found  embedded 
in  a  wall  in  the  outskirts  of  Mathurfi.  It  gives  a  picture  of  a  Jaina 
stupa  which  stood  on  a  high  plinth  as  it  was  approached  by  9  steps, 
leading  to  a  iorona  gateway  witli  a  garland  hanging  from  it.  Tlie 
stupa  was  surrounded  by  a  railinj;.  The  side  columns  are  of  Perse- 
politan  type  and  bear  a  sun  wheel  and  a  lion.  A  male,  a  female 
and  a  child  are  posturing.  Two  seductive  Yakshis  with  pronounced 
vulva   are   standing.     Two    nude   flying    figures    bearing   alms  and  cloth. 

Two  other  Ayigapatas,  ornamental  slabs  bearing  the  representation 
of  Jaina  saints  or  stupas,  have  been  found  at  Kankali  mound  of  .Mathura, 
one  set  up  by  Sivayasa,  the  wife  of  dancer  Fhaguyasa.  and  the  other 
by  Amohini  in  the  year  42  of  the  lord  Mahskshatrapa  Sodasa,  A  Jaitia 
stupa  is  guarded  by  a  railing.  One  ascends  the  stupa  enclosure  on  a 
high  plinth  through  a  decorated  Torana  gateway  by  a  4  stepped  stairway. 
A  Yakshi  type,  sensual  nude,  except  wearing  an  ornamental  girdle, 
a  necklace  and  anklets,  reclines  against  a  Torana  pillar,  placing  her 
flexed  kneed  slightly  separated  feet  on  the  railin;^  in  Tribhanga  voluptuous 
pose,  exposing  her  vaulted  monsveneris  and  vulva,  putting  her  right  hand 
on  her  raised  right  hip  and  raising  left  hand  on  her  head,  thus  exposing 
her  two  firm  globular  breasts,  on  eacli  side  of  the  gate.  There  is  a 
dedication  at  the  bottom  of  the  plinth  in  a  more  archaic  character  than 
Sunga  Dhanabhuti  inscription  on  Bharut  stupa  gateway  of  about  150  B.  C, 
Amohini  royal  tablet  represents  a  royal  lady,  attended  by  the  three 
women  and  a  child.  The  attendent  women  are  n.aked  to  the  waist.  One 
holds  an  umbrella  over  her  mistress  whom  another  fans  ;  the   third   holds 


116  THE  LITEEARr  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

a  garland  in  her  extended  hands.  The  execution  is  bold  and  naturalistic. 
In  the  Vodva  tablet,  a  Dharmacakra  is  supported  by  a  insula  which  itself 
rests  on  a  lotus.  Four  female  figures,  dressed  in  a  single  long  robe 
covering  the  whole  body  to  the  feet  and  confined  at  the  waist,  hold  up  in 
their  right  hands  a  long  stalked  lotus  flower  while  the  fourth  one  who  is 
younger  clasps  her  hands  in  an  attitude  of  adoration  and  partly  hidden  much 
behind  a  bearded  human  headed  crouching  lion  of  Assyrian  type.  There 
are  inscriptions  at  the  top  of  the  slab  and  at  the  bottom. 

Jaya  Vijaya  Cave  has  female  statue  in  low  relief  about  6  feet, 
leaning  her  weight  on  her  right  leg,  the  left  foot  being  bent  behind  the 
right,  only  the  toes  touching  the  ground  ;  she  is  certainly  nude  above 
the  waist,  possibly  wearing  a  drawer,  holding  in  her  right  hand  a 
flower  while  her  left  forearm  is  bent  horizontally  across  her  waist  ;  the 
headdres  is  a  ribbed  hat  with  long  lappels  ;  face  is  cliffed  ofif,  but  the 
form  is  naturalistic  and  graceful. 

The  Khandagiri  Hill  Caves  are  of  much  later  date.  All  have  a 
chamber  shaded  by  a  verandah  in  front,  but  a  few  possess  an  antechamber 
which  is  divided  into  several  cells.  The  more  elaborate  are  two  storied. 
The  largest  of  them  have  an  extra  verandah  of  masonry  painted  and 
plastered,  in  addition  to  the  usual  one  ;  it  contains  sculptures  of  24 
Jaina  saints — male  and  female  TirthSnkaras  ;  also  an  image  of  Hanuman  in 
one  corner  which  probably  was  added  later.  In  one  cave  the  entrance  is 
in  the  shape  of  the  mouth  of  a  tiger.  Chaitya  Garh  of  Bhaja  cave  of  2nd 
century  B.  C  ;  it  has  five  cells-  The  cornice  is  supported  by  male 
figures  as  caryatids,  wearing  waist  cloth,  large  turbans  and  much 
ornaments.  Armed  door  keepers  wear  the  same  dress.  A  few  miles 
further  off  are  the  Kondane  Daitya  and  Vihara  caves  of  the  same  age  of 
Bhaja  ;  but  as  at  Kondaine  wooden  form  of  architecture  is  more 
liberal.  Bsdsa  caves  of  1st  century  B.  C.  are  of  lithic  type.  Horses 
and  elephants  bearing  men  and  women  on  the  capitals  are  of  more 
animated  execution-  The  caitya  Hall  of  Karli  Cave  is  a  marvellous 
creation.  It  is  124  feet  long,  45  feet  broad  and  45  feet  high  with  a  ribbed 
vaulted  dome,  contains  a  nave,  apse  and  aisle  •,  the  apse  contains  in 
place  of  the  altar,  a  stupa,  everything  hewn  out  of  the  rock.  Nasika 
Cave  is   of  1st  century  B.  C,  Cave   3  of  1st  century  A.  D. 

Aurangabad  Cave  3  contains  many  columns.  One  of  these  columns 
is  carved  with  16  scenes.  The  number  of  figures  varies  from  2==  4  inch  each. 
Two  sitttng  persons  are  drinking  ;  then  dancing  with  their  backs  to  each 
other,  then  quarrelling  ;  certain  groups  of  kneeling  worshippers  have  their 
hair  dressing  in  Egyptian  fashion.  There  is  an  extensive  group  of 
Kanheri  Caves.  The  Caitya  Cave  is  a  replica  of  the  Karli  Cave, 
enshrined  by  Pushyavarman,  according  to  a  copper  plate  inscription. 
The  finest  among  the  Vihara  Caves  is  a  two-storied  one.  Another  cave, 
likely  of  Gupta  sixth  century,  has  the  representation  of  Avalokitesvara 
with  10  hands  which  is  common  in  Tibet.  The  Junir  Caves  halfway 
between  Puna  and  Nasika  have  square  terminations  without  any  support- 
ing pillars  in  the  interiors.  One  of  the  caves  is  circular  in  shape.  There 
are  no  figure  sculptures  in  any  of  them,  except  one  which  is  of  later 
construction  whose  facade  is  decorated  by  the  elephants,  pouring  water  on 
the  head  of  SrJ.  The  Ajanta  caves,  32  in  number,  have  been  executed 
on  the  face  of  perpendicular  rock  with  charming  scenic  background,  dating 
from  3rd  century  B.  C.  to  7th  century  A.  D. 


*  ABI8 — S.lNCI  117 

The  earliest  temple  structure  is  found  at  Sanci  of  Maurya 
period.  The  orij:;inal  structure  consists  of  an  apsidal  etono 
plinth  approached  by  a  flight  of  steps  on  the  eastern  and 
western  side.  The  superstructure  was  of  wood.  Now  it  lies 
hidden  beneath  later  constructions.  Temple.^  to  Sankarshana 
and  Vasudeva  were  also  erected  at  Nagari  in  Madhyamika 
(Udaipur)  ;  a  Bhagavata  shrine  at  Besnagar  in  Gwalior. 

At  Durgapur,  knifeblades,  crescents,  arrowheads,  owls,  small  axes, 
made  of  quartz  or  cornelian  used  on  wooden  slicks  to  makt:  composite 
tools  as  found  in    as  Asia  and  Africa  for  preagricultural  hunting  age. 

At  Joggayyapetn  Stupa,  ne:ir  .Amar'.vati  on  the  Krishni  there  is  a 
well-made  basrelief  of  C.ikravartin  with  9  Jewells  -  wif.-,  daughter,  son, 
horse,  elephant  and  arms. 

Sanci    Tope:  Maurya    Asokan    original   structure   of  brick  16"  x  10' 
X  3"  ;    Apsidal    Hall  ;    umbrelb    and    pillar   of    buff-grey    Chunar    sand- 
stone ;    pillar  was  -42  feet   high    round    and    slightly  tai)ering    monolithic 
shaft  with  bell  shaped  foliate  capital,  adorned    with  4  hone)  suckle    motive 
above  which  an  abacus  supporting    the    fore    fronts    of  4  mngnificent  lions. 
Sunga  :    stone   envelope   and   ground   stairway     of    stupa  I  ;     body   and 
stairway  of  stupas    3,  4.  6  ;   pillared  pavilion  =^  mandapa   on    the    ruins   of 
Apsidal  Hall  and  a  pillar  fluted  with  bell  capital  ;  the  pillar  is  l5'l"  from 
ground  level  ;    its  diameter  is  1^8^'' at   the  base;    up    to    4'7"    the   shaft 
is    octogonal  ;    above    that    1 6-sided.     Andhras  :     four     gateways  ;     and 
extension    ground    balustrade,    sculptures   on    pillars    22.    27    on   ground 
balustrade,  Gupta  :  four    image  shrinks  in  procession    path,    a    fine  temple 
with    verandah.    1    N?igi   statue,    two    monasteries,    two     stupas   and    two 
pillars  of   circular  shapts   with    square  bases  ;  the  capitals  of   the  columns 
are  bell  shaped  of  lotus    type    with    leaves    falling   over    their   shoulders  ; 
above    this    is    a   circular   cable    necking   above    which    there    is   a  deep 
square    abacus  ;  the  crowning  feature  of  lions  with  cakra  has  disapp-.-ared  ; 
on  another  abacus   there  is  a  splendid  Budhisattva  Vajrap'ini   of    Nagouri 
bufT  sandstone  splashed    and  streaked    with   purplish    brown;   the   temple 
has  the   plan  of  prostyle  Greek  temple   of  a   single  square  chamber  1S"5  x 
12'9"  X  13'  high  in  front   supported   on  4  pillars    and   an    anta    on   either 
side  of  the  entrance   correspondence  to   the  corner    pillar  ;    its    walls   and 
fiat  root  slabs    are    built   of   the   same    Nagouri    stone.     Tnere    are   S42 
inscriptions  of  donors  of   Sanci  Tope  whose   ancient  names   are  Kakanaya 
=  Sri  Parvata  =  Cetiya   Giri.     Bharut,  Sanci   and    Bodh   Gaya   Railings 
and  Sanci  Toranas   are  well  noted  for   their   sculptural    magnificence   and 
though  Bharut  basreliefs  not  only  are  inscribed  with  the  names  of  principal 
characters  and   the   nanv^s    of  the   J  itaka   stories   which  they    dlusiratc, 
Buddha  before    the  Kushan  ptriod  is    never  represented    in  hum.an    form, 
but  by   such    symbols,  as  footprints,  umbrellas,  wheels  or  the    Bjdhi    tree. 
At   Bharut  the    life  siz^  figure  of  a  soldier,  head  bare,  whose  short  curly., 
hair   is  bound  with  a  broad  ribbon  whicii  is  fastened  at    the   back   of  the 
head   in   a     streaming   bow.     Face    and     nose    are   sharp.     Wearing   a 
tunic  with  long    sleeves,  reaching   nearly   to   mid  thighs  ;  it  is  tind   at   the 
throat    by  a  chord  with    two  tassels  and   across  the   stomach   by   a   double 
looped  bjw.     There  are  trousers  which   are  held  by    a   v.aist    band   whose 
ends   fall  to  the   feet.     Boots  cover  the  feet  and    legs   which   are    fastened 


118  THE  LITERABY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDI  A 

The  temple  of  Jandian  at  NW  Taxila  resembled  the  Greek 
type  of  peristyle  shrine.  Its  front  porch  =  pronaos  led  through  a 
side  door  to  the  sanctuary  =  naos  and  to  the  back  porch — opitha- 
damos.  It  differs  from  the  Greek  typs  in  having  a  massive 
platform  between  the  sanctuary  and  the  porches,  possibly  for  the 
fire  tower  of  the  Zoroastrains,  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  a 
passage  taking  the  place  of  the  columned  peristyle  of  Greek 
temples.  Front  portion  had  4  Ionic  columns  in  two  rows  which 
indicates  that  it  was  built  not  later  than  103  B.  C. 

by  two  tassels.  In  the  left  hand,  he  has  a  flower,  and  in  his  right  hand 
a  broad  straight  sword,  sheathed  in  a  scabbard,  suspended  from  the 
left  shoulder  by  a  long  flat  belt.  It  is  Mithra  =  Mihira  =  J/iz/w/a  which  is 
carved  on  the  statued  pillar.  Moon  Goddess,  holding  a  mirror,  streaming 
reflected  light,  Ad'.sugahaka  =  Ir.  Mah.  Temptation  of  Buddha  by  Rati 
(Gk.  Erota)  and  other  daughters  of  Mara  (Rom.  Amor).  A  nude  Rati 
over  Makara  (Dolphin)  which  became  later  Makara-Vahini  Ganga. 

The  temple  is  rectangular  and  the  outer  walls  are  heavy  with 
numerous  windows  on  three  sides.  On  the  fourth  side  facade,  there  is  an 
entrance  divided  into  three  parts  by  two  square  pilasters.  Within  this 
enclosure,  there  is  a  second  rectangular  unit,  and  between  this  and  outer 
wall  runs  a  corridor  of  uniform  width  on  three  sides  but  surrounded  wider 
on  the  front.  The  inner  building  consists  of  three  rooms  in  Scytho- 
Parthian  style.  It  has  been  suggested  that  this  was  the  temple  visited  by 
Apollonius  of  Tyana  in  about  4h^  A.  D.  where  he  expected  to  be  received 
by  the  king  of  Taxila. 

At  Amaravati  and  Nagarjuna  Konda=^  Vijayapuri,  Buddha  has 
no  image,  in  the  reliefs  of  the  first  period  ;  but  in  the  later  half,  Buddha 
becomes  a  dominant  figure.  The  early  typa  of  Kusan  Buddha  and  Budhi- 
sattvas  of  Mathura  is  in  round  and  of  high  relief  in  the  mottled  red  sand- 
stone of  Sikri  or  Rup  Bas.  The  head  is  shaven,  and  later  with  curly  hair. 
Ushnisha  is  spiral,  in  imitation  of  the  curly  hair,  according  to  Nid-lna- 
katha.  The  right  hand  is  raised  as  abhaya  mudrl  ;  the  left  is  often 
clenched,  and  in  the  case  of  seated  figures  rests  on  the  thighs,  and  in 
case  of  the  standing  figures,  it  supports  the  folds  of  the  robe,  the 
elbow  being  at  some  distance  from  the  body  ;  the  robe  leaves  the 
right  shoulder  bare  ;  the  drapery  moulds  the  flesh  closely  and  is 
arranged  in  schematic  folds.  Both  at  Bharut  and  Sanci  floral 
designs  are  excellent.  Some  of  the  pillar  figures  not  only  show  fine 
decorative  fitness,  but  also  display  fine  anatomical  propjrtion  and 
graceful  beauty  of  the  human  body.  The  rhythmic  swaying  pose,  displaying 
voluptuous  softness  of  the  nubile  breasts,  slender  waist,  rich  and  healthy 
sexuality  and  seductive  sensuality  of  the  nude  Yakshis,  appearing  as  if 
in  living  pulsating  flish  and  blood,  are  really  outstanding  contributions 
of  the  nude  art  of  sculpture  of  ancient  India.  Animal  scluptures  are  also 
finest,  even  beating  the  Egyptians  and  Assyrians.  They  have  been 
carved  sometimes  with  such  skill,  keen  inside  and  knowledge  of  the 
animal  life,  they  seem  to  be  living  and  moving  creatures,  instead  of 
dead  stones.  At  the  back  of  the  east  gateway  at  Sanci,  all  the  animal 
world  are  assembled  to  pay  homage  to  the  Bodhi  tree  ;  buffaloes,  slow 
and  patient,  stand   close  to  the  tree  ;  in  the   left    corner  a   docile   cow    is 


ARTS— AJANTA  119 

Acinta  monastery  whore  Ann  Asanga  of  Yorjacara  scliool  of 
Buddhists  hved  was  called  hiter  Ajanta.  '29  Buddhist  shi  Iiigh  have 
been  cut  out  from  the  rock  which  as  sharp  perpendicular  cUff, 
occupying  about  ^  a  mile  of  the  wall  space,  in  a  semicircular 
crescent,  facing  the  Ajanta  ravine  in  the  west,  thus  exposes 
Ajanta  facac^es,  veranda  sculptures  and  paintinj,'8  wiih  the  inclined 
golden  light  of  the  sun.  From  cave  to  cave  a  rude  If^dge  and  a 
stair  unsteadily  chambers  and  a  pretty  wixtorfall  splashes  over  it 
half-way.  Ancient  excavations — 8,  10,  13  have  no  paintings  ; 
Vd,  the  oldest  of  them  of  about  200  B.  C.  has  polished  walls. 
Columns  and  reliefs  are  found  in  all,  paintings  only  on  columms 
and  ceilings  in  1,  2,  9,  10,  II,  16,  17,  19,  '21  in  17  the  most 
extensive.  Caves  9,  10,  19  are  chaityas — shrines,  jind  the  rest 
are  viharas— monastic  residences.  The  stone  is  bluish  mauve. 
Each  of  the  vihara  consists  of  a  central  hall,  used  either  as  a 
dining  hall  -refectory  or  oratorial  school  with  some  cells  opening 
into  it  and  a  great  sanctuary  opposite  the  main  entrance  with 
pillared  asles,  naves  and  verandahs.  Caves  1(5  and  17  are  of 
sixth  century  work.  So  Ajanta  exhibits  nearly  continuous  8 
centuries  of  art  activities  of  India.  There  is  a  Vakataka  inscrip- 
tion in  cave  16. 

resting  ;  a  herd  of  black  buck  occupies  the  opposite  corner,  one  is  engazed 
in  scraching  its  ear  ;  a  porrot  rears  its  head  as  if  to  screem  at  its  enemy — 
the  serpent  ;  poacocks  with  their  haughty  crested  head  and  swelling 
plunnge  (Indian  sculptures  were  often  plastered  to  cover  up  whcreever 
necessary  the  sculptural  defects  and  painted)  ;  two  apes  busily  occupied 
in  picking  fruits  ;  a  fine  goat  ;  on  tlie  front  of  the  West  Gateway. 
Sanci,  there  is  a  remarkable  herd  of  elephants,  depicting  the  events  of 
Saddanta  Jataka. 

The  surface  of  the  rock  wall  was  spread  over  with  a  thin  ferruginous 
layer  of  clay  mixed  with  cowdung,  lime,  and  hemp  fibres  ^  of  an  inch 
thick  ;  over  this,  columns,  figurines,  carven  decorations  and  reliefs  w.as 
overlaid  a  coating  of  lime  plaster  to  cover  any  unevenness,  broken  chiffs 
of  stone,  defecting  anatomical  carvings.  Multi-colored  gravels  which  lie 
round  the  rocks  were  finely  grounded  and  mixed  with  rice,  or  linseed 
decoction  and  a  little  molasses.  With  bold  and  easy  strokes  of  brushes, 
everything  was  painted  while  the  plaster  was  wet  with  marked  technical 
skill  and  emphatic  passionate  force.  Then  the  punted  surface  was 
rubbed  over  with  a  small  trowel  to  create  smoothness,  sheen  and  vividness 
of  the  fresco  paintings.  In  the  antechamber  shnne  of  cave  1,  Buddha  is 
seated  cross-legged,  he.ad  hair  is  in  Apollonian  curls,  but  the  lips  are  thick. 
The  doorway  to  the  shrin  j  is  richly  carved  with  fi  )ral  and  creeper  designs. 
Next  to  it  on  both  sides  are  Bodhisattvas  as  door  keepers  ;  above  them  in 
4  panels  are  four  mude  loving  pairs  in  different  postures  ;  next  to  them  are 
two  pillars,  bases  octagonial,  middle  round  at  their  capitals  consist  of  two 
water  vessels,  one  a!)ode  the  other  ;  ne.-ct  is  another  pair  of  columns, 
bottom  third  of  which  is  round,  middle  third  is  fluted,  above  which  there 
are  two  water  vessels  ;  above  the  water  vessels  there  are  Makaras  ;  above 
the   Makaras,  pretty  nule  Ratis  in  suggestive  poses.  Next  to  them,  flanked 


120  THE  LITERARY  HISTOEY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

on    the   side    walls   are   the    paintings  of  tall  Vajiapanis  accompanied  on 
their  left  their  Saktis  or  7ara5  of  dark   complexion — staid    wisdom's   hue 
— all  wearing  crowns  on  their  head,  striped  loin  clothes  on  their    hips   and 
holding  a  white  lotus  in  their  hands,  with  however  languorous  eyes.    There 
is    another    interesting   picture   in  the   same  cave      A  king  is  seated  on  a 
sofa,  covered  with  yellowish  piece  of  cloth  with  floral  design  with  his  queen 
by   his    left   side.     She  wears    a  tiara  on  her  highly  decorated  hair,  wears 
a    stringed  pearl   necklace,    only   one    bracelet    and   a    yellowish  blouse  ; 
A  Naga  king,  wearing  a  crown  with  cobra  heads,  comes  to  pay  a  visit.     He 
is  seated  by  the  side  of  the  host.     Long  wavy  hairs  fall  on  their   shoulders, 
beneath  their  crowns      The  Naga  king  wears  a  leather  belt   with  a  number 
of  punched   holes  in  the  centre  which  is  holding  his  stripped  multicolored 
loin  cloth  ;  a  slave  girl  comes  forward  to   massage    his   feet.     Other  lovely 
maidens  with  ftne  wavy  hair  dressings  and   pearl    necklaces   come   forward 
with   trays   of   flowers,  fruits,  meat  cakes  and  bowls  of  drinks  to  be  offered 
to  the  gut-st.     There  is  a  Negro  body  guard  with  a  sword  in  his  hand  with 
short  wooly  krinky  hair,  short  broad  nose,  everted    lips,  long    eyes,    coarse 
featured  black  complexion.    Behind  the  host  there  is  a  fat  eunuch,  wearing 
a  long-sleeved  tunic  with  a  doubled  dome  shaped   cap,    on    a   crescent   of 
his  head  and  a  sword  hilt  on  his  head.  Every  maid  has  almost  a  decorative 
value,    irrespective   of  their  charming,   graceful    poses,    refined  cultivated 
manners  and  appearance,  pretty  coiffures  with  rich  wavy  hairs,    soft    gentle 
eyes    and   captivating    youthful   swelling  plump  nubile  breasts      Cave  17, 
painting   in  antechamber.     Buddha  begging  through  the  streets  of  Kapija- 
vastu  is  before  his  own  house.     Buddha   has  a  loose  robe  over    his  body,  a 
Scythian  cap  over  his  head,  a  begging  bowl  in  his  right  hand.     A  Vidhya- 
dhara   flying   over    Buddha's   head    is   holding   over    it   a    flower  decked 
umbrella.     Bimb^    Devi    thinking   that    her   husband    might   pass  by  that 
main  road,  wearing  her  finest  jewellery,  her  coiffure  stylishly    made,    some 
of   her  luxuriant  wavy  hairs  falling  as  if  carelessly  over  her  left  shoulder,  a 
white  half-sleeved  blouse,  her  stripped  loin  cloth    held   over   her   youthful 
swollen   hips    by  ornamental  girdles,  is  sitting  on  her  partico.  holding  her 
seven  year  old  son  Rahula  in  her  lap,  wearing  a  leather  jacket  with  sleeves 
and  loin  cloth.     When  Buddha  comes,  she  holds   both   the    hands   of  her 
child  to  show  him  his  father.     Both  of  them  gaze  at  him   with  wonder  and 
expectations.     The  tender  pathos  expressed  in  their  face  and  eyes  has  been 
drawn    in    rhythmic    brush  lines  with  e}^quisite  delicacy  and  charm.     It  is 
certainly  one  of  the  richest  and  most  marvellous,  if  not  the  best,  of  the    art 
treasures   of  the  world.     Buddha    carne   to   Kapilavastu     when    marriage 
festival  of  his  step-brother  Nanda.  son  of  Pajavati,  with  her    daughter   and 
his   own    uterine    sister  Janapada   Kalyani    Sundari    Nanda,    was    being 
arranged.     Nanda  and  Nanda  were  full  of  joyful  expectations.     Nanda   at 
the  request  of  his  sweet  heart  went  to  Buddha  to  invite    him  to  their  happy 
marriage   ceremony,    Buddha   persuaded    Nanda   to    be   a  follower  of  his 
wonderful  wandering  Sangha.     Nanda  at  first  could  not   believe    that   her 
beloved  would  act  so  foolishly  and  treacherously    against    her  ;    but    when 
the  news  was   corroborated,    Nanda  overwhelmed  with   grief,  was    sinking 
and  lying  prostate  over  her  bed.     Nanda  is  wearing  a  stripped  loin   cloth. 
One   of  her   friends    wearing   a   white    blouse   is  keeping  her  sitting  oa  a 
couch,  leaving  her  left  arm  on  a    pillow    by   holding    her    from    behind,  a 
maid  wearing  loin  cloth  and  sash  on  her  breasts  is  fanning  her  with  a  straw 
fan  ;   a   friend   wearing  a   white    blouse   is   holding  her  hand  ;   a  female 


ARTS — B\OH  OAVES  121 

relative  holding  a  water  jar  in  her  hand  is  talking  with  another,  all  having 
profound  grief  and  anxious  look.  This  great  picture  is  painted  in  cave  16, 
one  of  the  world  great  art  objects. 

In  cave  26,  there  is  a  recumbent  dying  RuJdha  23,J-  feet  lonv:.  In 
Kanchow  at  Ta  Fu  Ssu=  Big  Buddha  Temple,  a  40  yards  long  Buddha 
lies  on  a  couch  of  carved  lotus  petals,  surrounded  by  statues  of  lesser 
saints,  excavated  about  SOD  years  ago  by  Mongolian  Lamas.  Cave  2  is 
48' -  4"  X  47' -  7"  /.nd  the  roof  is  supported  l)y  12  massive  and 
elaborately  carved  pillars. 

In  the  ceiling  of  cave  I  :  one  middle  aged  good  looking  man,  bearded 
and  mou^tached  wearing  a  Sasanian  full-sleeved  tunic  and  a  breib!)ond 
bonnet  on  liis  hat  such  as  seen  in  the  portraits  of  tlie  kinas  of  the 
Sasanian  dynasty  is  sitting  cross  hgged  on  a  divan  holding  a  wine  goljlet 
in  his  right  hand  A  Saqi  (Skt.  Siikh'  =  Gk.  hetaira-a  female 
companion)  with  amorous  eyes  wearing  a  kind  of  Greek  chiton  and 
himaton  and  a  fillet  in  her  hair  is  leaning  on  his  left  shoulder.  Two 
female  cup-bearers  with  wine  jars  in  their  hands  are  standing  on  his 
both  sides,  their  skirts  falling  to  their  ankles,  wearing  a  round  skull 
cap  on  their  head,  and  embroidered  full-sleeved  olouse  on  their  body. 
Two  men  with  light  jackets  and  round  caps  on  their  heads  are  sitting 
below  his  feet  holding  in  their  hands  trays  containing  meat  cakes  and 
eggs.  We  know  Sasanian  ruler  Kosroes  II  sent  an  embassy  to  Chalukya 
Pulakesin  11  in  630  A.  D.  This  is  their  very  naturalistic  and  faithful 
representation.     It  has  been  very  cleverly  executed. 

Near  Aurangabad,  there  is  a  rock-cut  superb  Buddhist  Chaitya  shrine 
of  150  200  B.C.  There  is  a  high  relief  ballet  scene  of  about  600  A. D. 
in  which  the  body  of  the  pretty  buxom  ballerina  is  full  of  swinging 
rhythmic  movements  with  a  group  of  active  n-.usicians  seated  round 
her  on  the  stage. 

Bagh  Caves  in  Gwalior  number  9,  and  at  least  two  of  them  have  fine 
pictures  of  life  like  and  vigorous  elephants,  particularly  iiorses,  and 
graceful  women.  But  the  sites  and  pigments  were  not  well  selected. 
Excavations  were  carried  out  in  soft  and  easily  quarried  sandstone 
over  which  there  was  a  thick  and  heavy  hyer  of  claystone.  The 
claystones  falling  upon  the  cave  verandhas.  pillars  and  rt-lief  figures 
crushed  many  of  theiu.  Fresco  colours  became  easily  discolored  by  the 
combined  action  of  humidity  and  lime.  Cave  1  is  iSTxSO'  with  20 
pillars  in  the  square.  Caves  2  and  4  have  large  central  courts,  surroun- 
ded by  20  and  28  cells  with  pillared  verandahs  Caves  3  and  5  have 
more  elaborate  cells.  Cave  5  has  a  rectangular  hall  with  row  of 
pillars  on  a  common  plinth,  parallel  to  which  runs  a  bench  intended  as 
a  seat  of  dining  table.  Similar  shelf  like  projections  have  been  found 
in  Elura  and  Udaigiri  caves  near  Puri.  It  might  have  been  used 
either  as  a  refectory  or  auditorium.  In  Gosain  cave  2,  Buddha  with 
two  attendants  are  plastered  and  painted.  Caves  3  and  4  had  a 
common  verandah  220'  long  on  20  pillars  .  but  all  the  pillars  have 
fallen.  The  backwall  of  this  is  adorned  with  a  series  of  excellent  frescoes. 
In  Rang-Mahal  cave  4,  a  group  of  pretty  girl  musicians  with  vividly 
stripped  blouses  and  trousers  or  loin  cloths  are  dancing  and  singing  in 
a  rhythmic  swing  in  a  round,  round  a  male  dancer,  all  with  bjautiful 
faces,  fine   coiffures  and   some  with   bare    breasts.     The   beauty  and  charm 


122  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

of  these  women  as  those  of  Ajanti,  theic  joyful  movements,  the  curve 
of  their  breasts  and  hips,  the  bends  of  their  bodies,  arms  and  fingers,  the 
gaze  of  their  soft  languorous  eyes,  show  not  only  the  nobility  and 
refinements  of  their  culture,  they  are  still  sources  to  the  spectators  of 
pure  aesthetic  delight. 

Elur^  =  EIapura  Caves  cover  over  two  miles  excavated  by  Rastra 
Kuta  Indras  and  Vijayas  along  the  crescent-shaped  scarp  of  a  rocky  and 
barren  hill  side,  facing  towards  the  west  so  that  the  departing  sun 
illuminates  with  its  golden  rays  to  decorate  splendidly  their  marvellous 
carven  pillars  and  pilasters,  figures  of  gods  and  goddesses  as  if  to 
pay  them  homage  ;  the  Buddhist  caves,  12,  occupy  the  southern  end, 
dating  from  350-550  A.D.  of  which  the  first  nine,  called  Dherwara,  have 
meritorious  carvings  These  caves  have  a  central  hall  supported  on 
pillars  with  a  beautiful  gallery  on  a  level  with  the  plinth  running  round 
them  and  an  inner  sanctuary  enshrining  Buddha,  all  carved  out  of  the 
solid  rock.^  Cave  2  measures  48  ft  square,  exclusive  of  the  later  galleries 
on  each  side,  and  its  roof  has  the  support  of  12  sculptured  massive  pillars, 
arranged  in  a  square  ;  each  side  gallery  has  four  pillars  of  different 
designs  and  the  front  is  carved  in  florid  work  ;  the  shrine  contains  a 
colossal  Buddha  with  nimbus,  seated  on  a  lion  throne  in  a  teaching 
attitude.  Cave  5  measures  nearly  1 20  feet  by  60  feet  exclusive  of  two  side 
recesses,  surrounded  by  20  monastic  cells.  Cave  10  entrance  is  guarded 
by  a  kind  of  first  floor  to  which  there  is  an  access  by  a  flight  of  steps. 
This  gives  a  picturesque  view  of  open  court  to  whose  end  there  is  central 
nave  and  side  aisles,  measuring  85  10"  x  43',  34"  high  with  ribbed  round 
roof.  The  nave  is  separated  from  the  aisles  by  28  octagonal  pillars.  The 
remote  end  of  the  nave  has  a  dagoba  15^  feet  in  diameter  Buddha  with  a 
27  feet  high  and  has  a  front  piece  attached  to  it  on  which  11  feet  high 
seated  miilitary  moustache,  en  a  chair,  feet  lying  a  plinth  under  the  dome 
of  a  stupa,  flanked  by  two  standing  bodyguards  on  each  side.  For  ribbed 
carved  roof,  Iiiuddha  is  called  Visvakarman,  and  carpenters  pay  homage 
to  it.  Eleventh  cave — Don  Thol — is  three  storied,  containing  a  colossal 
Buddha  seating  cross-legged.  Twelfth  Cave— Tim  Thol — also  has  been 
excavated  in  three  storeys.  From  fifth  century,  Brahminism  became 
dominant  and  absorbed  Buddhism.  Fourteenth  cave  has  pillar  carvings 
like  those  of  the  latest  caves  of  Ajanta  of  early  seventh  century.  All 
the  compartments  of  the  wall  between  the  pilasters  are  filled  with  carvings. 
Durga  killing  Mahisasura  with  buffalo-head.  Siva,  Parvati  and  Ganapati. 
Siva  as  a  tandava  dancer.  Siva.  Parvati  in  seven  aspects  of  Sakti, 
called  Sapta  Matrika  (7  nude  women,  one  foot  folded,  the  other  on  the 
plinth)  and  Ganapati.  Ravana  is  trying  to  carry  off  Kailasa,  Parvati 
being  alarmed  clings  to  Siva,  who  fixes  Ravana  under  the  hill,  and  for 
this,  14th  cave  is  called  Ravana  Ka  Kai.  On  the  north  wall,  Durga,  four 
armed  with  her  feet  resting  on  a  tiger  is  holding  a  trisula  in  her  upper 
right  arm.  Laksmi  is  sitting  over  a  large  btus  flower.  Varaha— boar- 
faced  Visnu  with  his  feet  on  Sesa  serpent's  hood.  Fifteenth  cave,  called 
Dasa  Avatara,  is  two  storied,  of  which  the  lower  is  carried  by  twO' 
rows  of  8  plain  pillars,  2  more  standing  between  4  cells  in  the  back  wall. 
Its  court  is  entirely  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock  From  nw  corner  a 
staircase  leeds  first  to  a  landing  with  eleven  reliefs  of  Hindu  gods,  and 
then  to  the  upper  story,  supported  by  seven  rows  of  six  columns,  those  in 
front  being  richly  carved.     High  reliefs  on  the  walls  are  like  those  of  cave- 


ARTS-  ELUB.\  KA1L,\SA  MOSOMTniC  TKMPLK  123 

14  ;  but  additionally  Bhairava  has  a  necklace  of  human  skulls  ;  marrincf 
of  Siva  with  Parvali  on  the  northfirn  wall  ;  Siva  sprinftinit  from  a  li; 
Laksmi  pouring  water  over  her  in  l)ackwall  ;  Narasingha.  lion  htaucd 
human  being,  on  the  south  wail.  The  most  magnificent  and  wonderful 
is  cave  16,  called  Kail'isa  Monolithic  Temple,  it  stands  in  a  great  cuuri, 
averaging  1^4  feet  wide  by  276  feet  long,  rearing  its  rocky  head  to  height 
of  near  107  feet  having  well-tormed  doorways,  windows,  staircase  toils 
upper  floor,  containing  large  rooms  of  smooth  aiid  polisiied  surface, 
regularly  divided  by  rows  of  pillars,  several  shrines  connected  by  flying 
bridges,  most  of  whom  two  stories  high,  all  sculptured  within  and  without. 
And  besides,  beyond  its  areas,  there  are  three  handsom'..:  figure  gallaries, 
supported  by  regular  pillars  with  compartments  hewn  out  of  the 
boundary  scarp.  Within  tho  court  and  opposite  these  gallaries  rises 
KailHsa,  the  proud  and  maj-stic  tower  (obelisk),  a  mighty  fabric  rock. 
To  attack  a  solid  mountain  of  rock  about  107  feet  high  and  excavating  it 
by  the  slow  process  of  the  chisel  a  stupendous  temple  with  its 
indescribable  mass  of  sculpture  and  carving  in  endless  profusion,  indicati  s 
the  patience,  industry,  and  religious  fervor  of  the  Rfistrakutas,  t:iis 
amazing  work  of  monolithic  art  architecture.  Inspite  of  the  legions  of 
iconoclasts,  particularly  led  by  bigoted  Auranzeb,  lacking  all  sense  of 
aesthetics  and  arts,  in  their  fanatical  enraz-.d  sadistic  fury,  who 
tried  to  destroy  this  glorious  creation,  they  fell  impotent  to  complete 
the  task,  their  hands  became  wearied  and  axes  blunted  in  mutilating  and 
smashing  the  nose,  face  and  breasts  of  the  deities,  as  they  have  done  in 
many  other  tempks,  though  they  wanted  lr>  destroy  by  huge  fire,  as  inany 
of  the  remaining  frescoes  are  found  ll'""' jned  by  fire  and  smoke, 
Kailnsa  temple  still  remains  the  unsurpasijj  art  treasure  and  wonder 
of  the  world.  There  are  still  fresco  paintings— Harmed  Siva 
with  Vofii  symbols  on  his  forehead  (called  trinetra).  necklace  pendants 
and  other  ornaments  as  Nataraja  ;  and  Laksmi  in  the  ceilings.  Cave  21, 
called  Rameshvara,  is  a  lofty  Saiva  temple  ;  Nandi  bull  in  in  the  court 
on  a  high  pedastal  has  relief  of  goddesses  and  attendants  on  all  sides, 
the  pillars  have  deep  square  abacus,  carved  on  the  front  and  sides  with 
figures.  North  side  contains  Ravana  with  five  heads  under  Kailflsa.  and 
Siva  with  Parvati  and  other  attendants  are  above.  The  five  Jaina  caves 
31-35  date  from  8th  -  13th  century,  of  which  Indra  Sabha  and  Jagatmatha 
Sabhi  are  noted,  Indra  SabhA  is  the  finest  with  its  richly  und^r  cut 
carved  and  gracefully  proportioned  pilars  and  ornamental  <.esigns. 
Indra  Sabha  is  entered  through  a  rock  screen  facing  south,  in  front  of 
which  to  the  east  is  a  temple  with  statues  of  Parsan.itha,  Gotamasvami 
and  Mahavira.  On  either  side  of  the  stair  end  of  the  first  are  the  high 
reliefs  of  four-armed  Indra,  with  two  hands  holding  a  lance,  and  with 
another  vajra  andha  =  thunder  bolt,  and  his  consort  Indrani.  Standing 
figures  of  the  naked  Digambara  Tirthmkaras  are  conspicuous,  the  nichts 
of  each  being  adorned  with  graceful  arches  and  heavy  foliage.  High  up  in 
the  hills,  hidden  in  an  unnumbered  cave,  there  are  a  few  panels  of 
painting  in  a  relatively  wonderful  state  of  preservation,  where  one  can 
get  glimpse  of  those  original  colors— the  red  ochres  still  shining  yellow 
red,  crushed  lapis  luzuli  still  glinting  its  heavenly  azure  blue  and  tiie 
chalk  is  still  pretty  white. 

At  Aihole  on  the   MalabhadhrA  river   in  Kaladgi  Dt,  there  is   a   sniall 
cave  temple,  possibly  of  the  Chalukyas,   consisting  of  a  hall  18-^  ft.  ;<  I3^fi. 


124  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIBNT  INDIA 

8'9"  high  with  two  plain  square  pillars  in  front.  On  each  side  of  the  hall 
is  a  chapel  and  behind  it  the  shrine,  each  raised  by  5  steps  above  the 
level  of  the  hall  floor,  and  the  front  of  each  is  divided  by  two  pillars 
with  square  bases  and  16 -sided  shafts.  Ttie  chapel  in  the  right 
measures  12'x  14'  On  the  left  side  chapel  on  Jhe  backwall  there  is  a 
high  relief  of  10-armed  Siva  dancing  with  Pirvati,  Ganesa  and 
Candi  =  Cundi  ;  in  the  corners  of  the  hall  are  larger  of  Ardhanari  ;  Siva 
and  Parvati  with  the  human  skeleton  —  Bhringi  :  from  Siva's  high 
headdress  rise  three  female  heads — Ganga  or  Uma,  Yamuna  or  Tsra.  and 
Sarasvati  or  Prajniparamita.  Badami.  23  miles  S.  \V.  of  Aihole  has 
4  caves.  Two  of  them  have  linga  shrines  with  long  sculptured  storey- 
telling  friezes.  Cave  3  contains  an  inscription  of  Mangalisa,  son  of 
Pulakesi,  the  Chalukya  king,  in  Saka  500  =  579  A  D  Its  verandah  is 
70' in  length  and  the  cave  inside  65',  l5'  high,  with  the  total  depth  of 
from  the  front  of  the  verandah  pillar  to  the  backwall  4S',  the  shrine 
going  into  the  rock  12'  further  9'  wide.  The  verandah  is  supported  6 
pillars,  each  2^'  square,  and  12  pilasters  12|  feet  high.  In  the  east  end  of 
veranda  there  is  the  large  figure  of  Vishnu,  seated  on  the  body  of 
Sesa  serpent  which  is  thrice  coiled  round  below  him  while  its  five  hoods 
spread  out  to  form  a  crown.  At  his  right  below  its  Garuia,  the  eagle- 
headed  man.  Opposite  to  him  is  Laksmi  with  high  mukiita.  Above  them 
are  two  pretty  damsels  holding  a  chaun  each.  In  the  right  Varaha  — 
the  boarheadfd  Vishnu  is  4-armed  Cakra  and  Sankha  in  his 
uplifted  hands,  standing  with  his  left  foot  on  a  human-headed  serpent; 
in  one  of  his  left  hands  beholds  a  large  lotus  flower  on  which  stands 
Prithivi  -  Bhudevi  -  the  earth  Mother.  Cave  I  entrance  is  21'  wide; 
the  hall  measures  4^'l"x  24^',  the  roof  supported  by  rows  of  4  columns. 
Within,  the  middle  entrance  there  is  a  lover's  pair  -  a  Yaksha  with  an 
Apsara.  Undavilla  cave  on  the  Krishna,  a  mile  oft  from  Bejwada, 
dedicated  to  Anantasena=  Nsrayana,  Khatti  Inar  or  Nara,  a  Neri  descent 
is  4  storeys  high,  one  above  the  other,  though  a  litle  setback  from  the 
lower  excavation,  with  a  fifth  storey  in  front  to  the  right,  a  little 
detached,  and  which  might  have  been  intended  to  be  connected.  The 
front  of  the  lower  storey  extends  about  90'  in  length.  On  its  facade 
was  carved  an  inscription  in  one  line  in  Vengi  character  7- 8th  century. 
The  second  floor  is  much  bigger,  and  originally  consisted  of  4  apartments, 
but  a  door  has  been  broken  through  the  dividing  walls  of  third  and 
fourth,  thus  throwuig  them  practically  into  one  apartment  Projecting 
about  10'  further  forward,  is  the  central  Hall  29'9"  wide  by  31  deep, 
and  varying  in  height  from  7'3"  to  S'l".  The  roof  is  supported  on  16 
square  pillars,  champened  in  the  middle  of  the  shafts,  arranged  in  4  parallel 
rows.  A  stair  in  the  left  side  of  the  hall  leads  up  to  third  storey  and  lands 
in  a  hall  52'9"  x  30' x  3' '  x  8^.  There  is  a  verandah  with  6  pillars  and  2 
pilasters  in  front.  In  the  right  end  wall  of  the  hall  has  been  hewn  a 
recumbent  figure  of  Narayana  17'  long,  resting  on  Sesha  serpent  whose 
7  hoods  canopy  his  head.  In  front  of  the  verandah  is  a  platform  48' 
long  19|-'  broad,  forming  part  of  the  roof  of  the  storey  below.  Fourth  storey 
is  reached  by  a  series  of  steps  in  the  rock  at  the  south  side.  It 
represents  the  circular  or  domical  termination  which  crowns  every 
square  pyramidical  temple    in  S.  India. 

Suvi  Sikha,  a  Pahlava,  was  a  minister  of  Rudradaman  I,  the   ancestor 
of   the  Pallavas  of  Kanchi.  Pallavas  issued  their  earliest  known  documents 


ARTS — KaNISHRA   VIHAHA  125 

in  Prakrit  and  later  in  Sanskrit.  Pallav  is  assumed  the  title  of  Dharma- 
niahir^ja,  Asvamedhay  (jin  Pallavas  and  Vak  itatkas  were  lirahmins  of 
Bharadv'ija  aotra.  Palhivas  w -re  the  vassals  of  the  Andhras  in  the  Krishn  i 
Goda  vari  deltas  (  Vengi  J  in  the  second  century  After  the  fail  'jl]ihe  Anvlhras, 
Pallavas  became  independent,  and  from  5-Sth  centuries  Pallavas  became 
the  dominant  power,  and  their  sovereignty  extended  not  only  from  the 
Narvadi  to  Kalinga.  but  also  in  Malayasia.  Tlie  Andhras  and  early  Pallavas 
were  Buddhists.  About  437  A.  D.  Simhavishnu  dedicated  a  Buddhist 
image  at  Amaravati.  Mahendravaram  I  ^600- 625)  became  a  Saiva  convert 
by  Appasvami.  Narasimha  Varman  Ahava  Malla  a!)out  625-674  A.  D. 
made  Ma'ha'mallapurum.  after  his  own  name,  the  chief  I'allava  port, 
Eluri  Kailasa  temple  by  Krishna  of  RSstrakutas  in  760  AD.  Cave  16, 
17  were  made  by  Vakataka  last  king  Harisena  (465 -500^  and  his 
minister  Varahadeva.  Chalukya  Pulakesin  II  was  defeated  by  Narasinha 
Varman  =  Maha  Malla,  and  the  Pallava  king  removed  the  artisans,  sculjv 
tors  and  painters  from  Badami,  Ajanta  and  ElurS  to  Mamallapuram  who 
were  brought  back  when  Pulakesin's  son  Vikraniiditya  defeated  in  655 
the  Pallavas  and  captured  Kannhi.  Aj\nta  caves  100-50  B.  C. 
Paintings  448-480  A.  D.  ;  550-640  A.  D.  Mahendra  Varman's  works 
are  characterized  by  square  pillars,  whose  central  portions  being 
octagonal,  Dvarapalas  leaning  on  heavy  clubs.  Mamalla's  style  is 
octagonal  pillar  supported  by  a  sitting  lion,  which  later  degenerated  or 
developed  into  Yali  pillars  of  medieval  Dravidian  architecture.  In  a 
pillar,  embodied  in  later  Ekambaranath  Temple  of  K.nchi,  Mahendra 
boasts  that  he  built  temples  made  of  bricks,  timber,  metals  and  mortars. 

Purushapura  Kanishka  Vihara,  thirteen  stories  high,  on  a 
stone  foundation  and  plinth  of  carved  wood,  surmounted  by  a  massive 
finial,  consisting  of  a  heavy  iron  pillar  thirty  feet  in  height  and  bearing 
a  tier  of  13  gilded  circlets  or  umbrellas,  was  made  by  the  slave  Agesilaos 
for  Sarvastivadins,  according  to  4  inscriptions  found  there  in  Kharoshthi. 
Kushans  introduced  the  so  called  Gandh  ;ra  Buddhistic  art  through  the 
employment  of  workmanship  of  Bactrian  Greeks,  Parthians  iPallavas;  and 
Sasanians  who  adopted  Greco-Romanized  western- Asiatic  slyle  to  the 
iconographic.  minting  and  illustrative  requirements  of  the  Mithraic, 
Buddhistic  and  Brahminic  myths.  Moreover  there  were  36  Greek  kings  and 
queens  who  left  Hellenic  art  traditions  behind.  K'mishka  introduced  the 
pattern  ;  it  flourished  and  developed  later  through  the  patronage  of  later 
Kushans,  Kidara  Kushans,  even  White  Hun  Hepthalites  (VetAlas).  and 
modified  by  the  Sakas.  Andliras.  Guptas  and  Pallav.as.  Besides  the 
DharmarAjika  stupa  and  monastery,  other  very  interesting  buildings  in 
and  near  about  Taxila  is  the  group  at  Kalawan  which  stands  on  a  low  hill 
about  2  miles  sw  of  Dharmarajika  stupa  and  the  Bhamala  group  which 
is  in  Khanpur  valley,  about  13  miles  from  Taxila.  The  buildings  at 
Bhamala  are  noteworthy  for  the  boldness  and  beauty  of  their  architec- 
tural designs  and  beauty.  The  death  of  Buddha  has  been  depicted,  not 
found  any  where  else  in  Taxila.  Both  the  mon.asteries  at  Dharmarajika 
and  Bhamala  were  burnt  by  the  Hipthalites  about  the  end  of  5th  century 
A.  D  This  is  testified  from  the  amount  of  charcoal  burnt  masonary, 
charred  manuscripts,  gold  and  silver  coins  as  well  as  human  skeletons 
lying  in  contorted  postures.  Gold  coins  were  of  the  Kidara  Kushans,  while 
the  silver  coins  of  Hepthalities  got  circulated  through  commercial  inter- 
change. The   relics    discovered   at  Kalawan    may    be    dated   about    three 


126  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

centuries  AD.  The  most  remarkable  of  this  group  of  buildings  is  a  stupa 
court  containing  2  large  stupas,  three  temples  and  two  shrines.  One  of 
the  temples  has  an  octagonal  apse  and  a  mandapa  (square  ante  chamber) 
in  which  was  a  square  tank  lined  with  translucent  glass  tiles-  Possibly 
water  was  stored  in  ii;  for  the  convenience  of  monks  and  pilgrims  Some 
interesting  sculptures  have  been  found  at  the  apse,  as  the  Dream  of 
Maya  Devi,  the  Temptation  of  Buddha,  the  Fasting  Buddha,  Hariti  and 
and  Panchika,  a  child  in  her  arms  sucking  her  breast,  with  classical  folds  in 
their  drapery,  the  Greek  profile  of  the  nose,  form  of  the  eye,  curve  of  the 
lip  and  the  wavy  hair.  With  the  invasion  of  the  White  Hun  Hephthalities, 
Kushan  influence  did  not  die  out.  Many  of  the  Kushan  chiefs  ruled 
from  Kabul  to  Kuca  in  Turkestan  under  the  suzerainty  of  Hephthalites 
and  Sasaanians.  Hephthalites  and  Sasanians  adopied  like  the  Kushans  Indo- 
Parthian  method  of  Greco-Romanized  Buddhist,  Zoroastrian  and  Manichean 
iconography.  Mani,  son  of  Patek,  was  born  in  Babylon  in  215  A.D.  and 
received  his  education  in  Ctesiphon.  He  was  first  inclined  to  Christianity 
and  received  his  ordc;rs.  But  when  he  put  forward  his  pretension  that 
he  was  the  Parachete  =  the  Comforter,  and  published  his  gospel  Ertung, 
illustrated  by  pictures  drawn  by  himself,  he  was  expelled  from  the  church. 
Mani  preached  that  life  was  an  evil,  and  so  the  propagation  of  the  human 
race.  Therefore  he  denounced  marriage  and  unions  between  the  sexes. 
But  he  made  distinctions  between  the  elect-perfect  and  the  Caluchuman3  = 
the  hearers,  Buddhisatvas.  and  Upasakas  =  lay  worshipper  of  the  Buddhists 
who  were  bound  by  no  such  restrictions.  Mani  converted  many  Christians 
in  Mesopotamia  and  Buddhists  of  Agnis  =  Kuch-Tocharians  in  Turkestan. 
Manichaeans  sprinkled  their  eucharistic  bread  with  hnman  senen.  Mani 
was  favored  by  Shapar  I  and  his  son  Harmozd.  But  after  he  returned 
from  his  journeys  in  Kashmir,  Tibet  and  China,  Behram  272-276,  son  of 
Hormazd,  gave  orders  for  Mani  to  be  put  to  death  "This  man  has  come 
forward  to  destroy  the  world.  It  is  necessary  by  destroying  him  before 
anything  of  his  plans  shall  be  realized,"  and  many  Manichaeans  were 
massacred  by  the  Magus,  for  his  continence  theory  was  a  danger  to  the 
state,  as  for  Zoroastrians,  marriage,  parenthood,  husbandry  and 
farming  were  sacred  duties.  He  ordered  Mani  to  be  dragged  from  the 
court  and  his  skin  to  be  flayed  and  stupped  with  straw  upon  Jundi 
Shapur  Gate  so  that  no  one  shall  call  him  prophet  of  the  world.  When 
Mani's  books,  judged  heretic,  were  cast  into  flames,  rivulets  of  gold 
streamed  from  the  fire. 

From  first  century,  Buddhism  spread  over  Afghanistan,  parts  of  Iran, 
Turkestan,  and  China  ;  in  fourth  century  from  China  to  Mongolia,  Korea 
and  Cochin  China  ;  in  sixth  century  from  Korea  to  Japan  •,  in  sixth 
century  Brahminism  and  Buddhism  from  Ceylon  to  Burma,  and  Pallavas, 
Cholas  and  Palas  brought  them  into  Cambodia  and  Indonesia.  Brahminism 
laid  emphasis  on  individualism  and  nationalism,  while  Buddhism,  particu- 
larly Mahayana  preached,  proclaimed  and  practised  socialism,  inter- 
nationalism, humanity  and  brotherhood  of  man.  After  the  first  destruc- 
tive phase  of  conquest,  Hephthalite  ruler  Sri  Vasudeva  ('595-627  A.D) 
reigned  at  Bamiyan,  and  under  whose  patronage  the  vast  complexes  of 
cave  chappels,  assembly  halls  and  monastic  cells,  and  many  of  them 
are  interconnected  with  one  another  by  gallaries  within  and  along  the 
front  of  the  precipice,  were  excavated  by  Lokattaravadins  of  Maha 
Sangikas.     It  was  Zenghis  Khan   who   in   revenge   for   the   opposition  he 


AETS— BAMIvAN  C(  L098AL  BUDDEA  127 

had  at  Shahari  Zohan.  slau'^htered  the  entire  pjpulatijn,  even   the    lubies 
in   their    mothers'  wombs,    and     ihm     damii;ed  many    of    its   statuaries. 
Even  then  5000  H  izira  tribesmen  m  ul;  their  hom  s    in  the  caves  between 
the  two  rojk-cut  Buddhas    115    and  175  feet  hi^h,  only  ^  of  a  mil«j    apart. 
Sasanian    Hormizlas  II  (  297-310    AD  ),    suzerain   of    Iran,    niarri<.-d   tl^e 
daughter   of  the    Knshan   ruler   of    Kalml.      Bahram  conquerud    Seistan 
(Sakfisatna)  in  280  A. D.     Tlie  rule   of  Sasanian   satraps    in    Afi^'v   •'■'  n 
ends  only  witn  the    invasian    of  Chionites  in  358  A  D.     In  425  II      .    .  ^- 
lites    invaded  Ba:tria   and    within  a  few   years    swept   over    Kabul    valley 
and  Gmdhira      Sasanian  Cliosroes  I  and  the  Turks  broke  down  the  pjwer 
of   the    Hephthcilites,    but    the    Ivushans    and     Hcpthilites  used    to    rule 
Afghanistan  and  Bactria  up  to   the  time  of  Chosrocs    II    (593-628    A.D.). 
The  Chinese    Kwang  Vout    in  Turk-stan   and    Pancho   defeated    Knshan 
Kanishka  near    Ivashgar    25-28   A.  D.  and  got   the   submission  of  Kushan 
Khotan  and  Kashgar  in  73  A.D.  175  and  115  feet  BudJha  stanJing  statues 
have    bien   hewn   out   in    the   grottoas    of   the    sandstone    perpijndicular 
cliff,  of  Bamiyan  on  the  trade  route    from  Herat    to    Kabul    valley,    t)3ck 
being  attached  to  rock,  but    there    is    plenty    of   niches  over  the  head  and 
the  sides  of  the  arms.  Colossal  Buddha  statues  (120  feet  high  in  the  eastern 
end  and  175  feet  high  at  the  west)  of  Bamiyan  are  enormous  magnification 
of  typical  Gandharva   imag^    wifh  its  voluminous    draperies,    prevalent  in 
2-3rd  century  A.D.     The    image   of    Bamiyan    is    not  completely  carved. 
Only  the    armature,  a  rough    approximation    of   the    body   and    head    was 
cut  from  the   sandstone   cliff.     Over    this,    features   and    folds  of  drap.-ry 
were  modelled  in  mud    mixed    with  chopped    straw    with  a  final   coating 
of  lime  plaster  to   serve   as  a  base   for  polycliroming  and  guiMin^.    Traces 
of  pignent    may    still    be  seen.     In  170  feet  high  statue,  individual  fills 
of  Buddha's  robes  were    modelled  on    ropes   attached    to    wooden  dowels 
driven  into  the  stone.     This  technique  was   adopted    to   reduce    Buddha's 
robe  to  a  scries   of  strings   clmging   to  the   surface   of   the    body.     Hiuen 
Tsang  says  that  the  statue    was    made  of   metal.      It  was   simply   covered 
with   goldleafltng   and    precious     ornaments.      The   hair  of  the   colossal 
Bamiyan  Buddha    is  in    .Apollonian    ringlets  and   drapery   of  the  classic 
folds   of  Greco-Roman    Gandharian    type   of   3rd  to  .>th   centuries.     The 
countless   pleating    like   string    folds,    a    reduction    to   linear   term  of  the 
earlier  G'mdhara    robes,    is   just,    what  is   found   sn   the    dated    Buddha 
449453  in  the  Lu^^.know  Museum.     Bamiyan  fresco  b.ise   was  made    !)y  a 
thick   layer   of   mud   held   together   with  larger  pieces   of  chopped  straw 
as  employed  in  Turkestan   and  at  Tung- Huang  in  China.     Over   his   head 
in  the  high  niche  there  is    a   pretty-looking  effiminate  BoJhisaitva  Avalo- 
kitesvara"  sitting  on  as  tool  ■,  his  legs  are  apart  ;  by  his  right  side,  display- 
ing tempting  beauty,  FrajnaparamitS.    entirely  nude,  bends    towaids   him 
as  his  Sakti"    The  colours  are  indigo  ochre  and  orange.     .At  Danden  uliq 
in  Khotan  which  was    abandoned  in  791  A.D.     fresco   painting  of  a  w.ater 
nymph,  face   somewhat   roundish  like    the   moonfaced    Sasanian    fashion, 
eyes  a  little  oblique,  ankles  deep    in    water  ;    Eros   caching   hold   of  her 
airdle  is   climbing   on  her    thigh  ;    Hellenistic    like    that   of   Aphrodite. 
Bodhisattva  Vajrap'mi    wearing    boot,    breast    armour,    a   dagger   on    his 
thigh,  a  flower  in  his  right  hand,  holding  a  thunder    bolt   in  his  left  hand, 
black   moustaclie    and    beard   and   a    Sasanian   headdress,    on    a  wooden 
panel     with     4     arms.      In     Miran    temple     frescoes,     Indra,     Brahma 
and  4  armed  Siva  with  Parvati  have  been   found.   Hellenized   faces  found 


128  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

at  Schetzhole,  Oyzyl,  flg  83.  Maitra  Kanyaka  in  conversation  with 
his  father,  wearing  a  turban  on  his  head  •,  his  hetaira  is  leaning  againsV 
his  shoulder  entirely  nude,  except  the  girdle  clasp  covering  her  vulva,  a 
a  necklace,  earrings,  serpentine  bracelets  and  anklets  over  tinkling  bell- 
anklets,  Seefahrenhohle,  Fig.  37.     Alt-  Kutcha — Albert  Grunvedel. 

Amaravati,  ancient  name,  Dharanikota  dates  from  200  B.  C.  -  250^ 
A.  D,  Two  Andhra  inscriptions  have  been  found  there.  In  the  first  stage, 
there  was  no  Buddha  image  at  Amaravati,  but  at  the  later  stage,  it 
became  dominant.  A  local  landlord  made  lime  by  burning  the  limestone 
in  a  kiln.  So  much  of  Amaravati  have  been  destroyed.  And  whatever 
could  be  saved  are  now  in  the  British  or  at  Madras  Museums-  The 
Railing  of  Amaravati  was  192  feet  in  length,  600  feet  in  circumferance  and 
13- 14  feet  above  ground.  Amaravati  can  boast  of  very  naturalistic 
finely  executed  human  as  well  as  animal  figures  Siddhartha's  horse 
has  two  attendants  ;  two  damsels,  entrely  nude,  except  earrings,  anklets, 
bracelets  and  girdles,  exposing  their  thick  pubic  curls,  are  watching  in 
charming  natural  pose  (  now  in  British  Museum)^  A  bronze  Buddha  of 
Amaravati  has  been  found  at  Sempaya  at  the  mouth  of  Karma  river  in 
West  Celebes,  now  in  Batavia  Museum.  Nagarjuna  konda  =  Vijayapura 
in  Dhammagiri  =  Sriparvata  Mahachetiya  =  Ceylon  Dagoba  =  Dhatu 
(relic  -gabbho  (shrine),  apsidal  temple  and  a  monastic  hall  were 
erected  by  Chimtisiri,  the  queen  of  Siri  Virapurisadata,  recorded  in  a 
long  inscription  on  the  stone  floor  o*"  the  temple,  of  the  royal  house  of 
of  Ikkaku  who  had  matrimonial  relation  with  Satrap  Chastana  of 
Ujjaini  in  2nd  century  AD.  On  the  sculptured  pillars,  6-7  feet  high  though 
many  reliefs  have  been  damaged,  some  are  curious  and  majority  show 
marvellous  skill  in  depicting  human  figures  in  various  poses.  The 
svelte  and  languorous  beauty  of  the  female  figures,  the  rich  coiffures  on 
their  head  and  intensity  of  their  expressions  are  appealing.  On  one  of 
the  palace  pillars,  there  is  a  bearded  soldier,  apparently  a  Scythian, 
wearing  a  a  tall  leather  cap  with  ear  flaps,  a  quilted  long  sleeved  tunic 
and  trousers  and  holding  a  heavy  spear.  Perhaps  these  Scythians  were  the 
kinsmen  of  the  Ikhakus  (Okkaku)  and  satrap  Chastanas,  who  were 
Scythians  themselves,  if  not  scythianized,  or  were  employed  by  their  allied 
Andhra  suzerains  as  the  body  guards  of  the  palace  during  2nd,  3rd 
centuries.  The  other  relief  portrays  Dionysus  -  a  male  nude  down  to 
the  waist  and  holding  a  drinking  horn  (rhyton)  in  his  left  hand,  and  a 
piece  of  chiton  to  cover  his  penis,  standing  and  near  his  left  foot  there 
is  a  wine  jar  with  an  invented  cap  •,  the  face  is  Greecian.  The  active 
sea  borne  trade  between  the  Roman  empire  and  Southern  India  in  the 
2nd  century  A.  D.  may  account  for  it  as  a  copy  from  some  classical 
example.  In  stups  6,  a  small  gold  reliquary,  containing  a  tiny  piece 
of  bone,  a  very  corroded  and  crushed  silver  casket,  a  few  decayed 
pearls  and  coral  beads,  gold  leaf  flowers  and  two  tiny  thin  coin 
like  medallions,  one  bearing  the  embossed  bust  of  a  proud  di-^nified 
middle  aged  woman  with  prominent  nose,  wide  eyes,  thin  lips,  flowing  wavy 
hair  on  the  head,  possibly  Chamtisiri,  and  of  a  young  man,  likely  to  be 
her  nephew  and  sonin-law,  both  of  classical  appearance  and  two  small 
holes  drilled  at  the  top,  to  be  used  as  pendants,  have  been  found.  They 
show  Roman  influence,  Maharajasa  Virupakshapati  Mahasena  parighitasa 
Vasitiputasa  Ikhakusa  Siri  Chatamulasa  sodara  bhagini  Ramno  Madhari- 
putasa    Siri   Virapurisadatasa     pitucha    Mahasenapatisa     Mahatalavarasa. 


ARTS— NAOARJUNA   KHONDA  199 

VasitiputasTi    Pukiyanam  K"imda3iri  bhSriyil  —  MahSchettya  was    built    l)y 
MahatalaVciri    Chatisiri,    the    uterine   sister    of     Mahiraja     Vasithiputha 
Ikhaku  Siri  Chatumula  -  absorbed  by  Mah'isena  the  Lord    of   Virupukshas 
-  the  paternal  aunt  of  king  Madhariputa    Siri  Virapurishadata,  the  wife  of 
Mahasenapati     Mahitalavara    Vasithiputa    KamdAsiri    of    the     Pukiyas. 
Viropurishadata  married  his  cousin,    the    daughter   of   his  paternal    aunt 
Chamtisiri.     Two     pillar     inscriptions    mention     another   sister    (sodarA 
bhagini)  of  king   Chanitamulo,  named  Hainmasiri  ;    two  of  her   daughters 
BSpisirinika  and  Chathisiri  were  married    to    Virapurishadata,   known   as 
Mah^devi    Rudhradhara    Bhatarika  in  fitth  pillar   inscription.     A    Vihi^ra 
by  Mahadevi  Bhatidcvi.  daughter  in-law   of  Siri  Chatumula,  wife   of  Siri 
Virapurishadata  and    mother  of   Maharaja    Siri  Ehuvula   Chatumula.     By 
cross  cousin  marriage    all  the  king's    sons    married  all    the   daughteis   of 
their    maternal    uncles,    and   the  sons  of  maternal    uncles    marrying    the 
daughters   of  the  king  and   his    brothers  became    Senapatis,    the    eldest 
Mahasen  ipati.     This    was    the   Saka,    Andhra     and     Nagarjuna   Khonda 
custom.     Madariputa,  Vasithiputa   are  common  names  to    both  as    well    as 
in  their  Prakrit,     So  the    Andhras    and   the     Ikhikus    (Pali    Okkakai    of 
Nagurjuna    Konda   were   the    same   peoples    or   of    allied   stocks.     And 
their  architecture  and  arts  were  of  the  same  of  similar    patterns. 

The  reliefs  of  Suddhadana  and  of  his  brothers  — Dotadhana,  Sakyadhana. 
Amitadhana  (and  2  other    paternal    cousins)    sitting    together   with   May4 
and    Pajapati,  their    maternal    cousin  wives,  fanned    by  slave   girls    with 
yak  tails    (Miya  and  Pajavati's  brothers  — Supabuddha   and    Dandap'ini  — 
married    Suddhadhan's  sisters— Amita     and    Pamita)  ;  Suddhadhan's   and 
Maya's   loving  embrace ;  Maya  gives    birth    to    Siddhartha    in   a   standing 
posture,    exerting  abdominal    and   uterine   pressure    by   catching   hold    of 
the    branch   of   a   tree  ;    attended    by    Pajapati    and    maids  ;    casting   of 
horoscope  by    three   astrologers  through  liver   divination    (examining   the 
lobes  of  three   livers  kept   on  reed  tables   like  Assyrians)    in    the   presence 
Suddhadana   and    his    brothers,    Pajapati   sitting    by   the    side   of  seated 
Suddhadana  at    whose  foot    there   is   a    Padacariki  ;    Pajipati,    stylishly 
dressed,     attended    by    maids,    presenting    Siddhartha   before   the   Saka 
tutelary    deity     Sakka  ;      Siddhartha      with      Bhadda-Kacchana    (light- 
yellowed)    Bimba    as    lovers    (Siddhartha    married    his     maternal    cousin 
Bimba,    the   daughter  of  his  paternal    aunt    Amita    and    Supabuddha   and 
Dandapani  ;  Bimba's  brother  was  Devadatta)  ;  Siddhartha  in    his   pleasure 
garden,  entertained  by  danseuses  ;    Siddhartha    leaving    home,    riding  his 
horse  :  Temptations  of  Siddhartha  by  Mara's   daughters;   Sujat  t— Srenika 
Nandika's    daughter— of     Uruvilva     where     were    many     Vilva    (.^gle 
marmelos     trees,  and    fire    worshippers   KSsyapas    had    their    settlements, 
offering  food  to    Siddhartha  ;  the  first  sermon  of  Buddha   at    Deer    Park. 
Sirnath  ;  A   king   trampling   down  under  his  foot  a  Linga  image  ;   Amari 
Devi,    wife    of   a    king's   minister,  complains  before  the  king  against  four 
other    ministers   who   plotting    against    her  husband    had  him  exiled,  and 
made  love  overtures  to    her  and  presented  to  her    with    love    letters  some 
ornaments  slolen  from  the  king's  jewellery  ;  she  made    appointments    with 
them   on  the   same  night  and  as  each  of  them  came,  the  previous  one  was 
made  to  hide  himself  in  her  privy.     Thus  all  four  of  them  were   presented 
to  the   king   with    all   the   evidences    of  their   guilt  ;  and  they  are  asking 
pardon   with   folded  hands   from   the   king.     A  similar  story  is  found  in 
Brihat  Katha  Sarita  Sagara,  written  at  Pratistanapura  of  the  Andhras. 


130  THE  LITEBARY  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Gupta  Aihale  temple  is  low  and  flat.  On  the  pillars  of  the 
porch  there  are  figures  of  river  goddesses  (in  Sung  period  as 
Bati).  The  windows  are  perforated  stone  slabs.  On  the  roof, 
there  is  a  small  square  cell  of  slab  construction  with  a  porch  as 
sun  temple.  The  Gupta  style  of  architecture  is  characterized  by 
flat  roof  without  steepness  •,  prolongation  of  the  doorv/ay  beyond 
the  jam  ;  statues  of  personified  Ganga  and  Yamuna,  guarding 
the  entrance  j  pillars  with  massive  square  capital,  surrounded 
by  two  lions  back  to  back  :  verandah  with  4  pillars.  Gupta 
monolithic  pillar  is  43  feet  high  set  up  at  Eran  in  Sagaur  Dt  as  a 
flagstaff  of  4  armed  Vishnu  in  484-485  A,  D.  ;  on  the  capital 
there  is  a  two-armed  male  figure  with  two  faces  and  radiated 
halo.  Another  monolithic  column  b9'5"  excluding  the  detached 
abacus  is  at  Sondain  and  inscriptions  record  the  defeat  of  the 
Huns  by  Yasodharman  about  623  A.  D.  Four  other  monoliths 
tnown.  Colossal  Vaiaha  Avatara  relief  at  Udayagiri  cave, 
Bhopal.  Gupta  400  A.  D  :  Uparkofc  cave  at  Junagarh  with 
2-storied  fluted  pillared  hall  v/ith  a  bath  of  Late  Guptas.  Vishnu 
Stambha  Garuda  Iron  pillar  (now  in  Katab  Miuar),  ascribed  to 
Candra  Gupta  Vikramaditya,  dating  about  400  A.  D.  is  a  forged 
bar  of  rustless  iron  nearly  2  4  feet  high  and  said  to  vveigh  6  tons, 
gracefully  moulded  at  the  top  with  a  Persepolitan  bell  It's  base 
diameter  is  16J'  while  the  upper  part  12'.  Depth  below  unknown  j 
excavations  have  been  made  as  far  down  as  55  feet. 

Two-storeyed  rock-cut  hall  on  the  Uparkot— the  fort  of  Junagarh  of 
the  late  Guptas,  An  excavated  deep  water  tank  11'  square  with  a  covered 
■verandah  on  three  sides  of  it.  The  corridor,  on  the  south  side  is 
supported  by  2  columns  with  spiral  ridges  on  their  shafts.  In  the  north 
side  over  the  tank  there  is  a  door  to  the  next  chamber  35'  -  10"  x  27'  -  10" 
■with  6  columns  supporting  the  roof,  A  door  leads  to  a  stair  descending 
to  the  entrance  of  the  hall  below  39^'  x  36.  The  four  columns  are  richly 
carved.  The  abaci  are  carved  with  lions  couchant  at  the  corner,  and  in 
the  middle  of  each  is  a  lion  facing  outwards  a  human  figure.  The  body 
of  the  capital  is  covered  with  figures  of  animated  tall  and  slender  women, 
almost  nude,  except  a  thin  girdle,  some  standing  under  foliage,  carved  in 
high  relief.  On  the  columns  below  the  capital,  heads  of  animals  — 
elephants  and  goats  — (Skt  chagala  =  Tamil  iaka/- =Kandrsse  tagar  = 
Mardwin  sava)  are  carved,  The  frieze  is  ornamented  with  Chaitya 
windows.  Talaja  =  Talugiri  has  36  Buddhist  caves  with  l5 
cisterns.  Elebal  Mandap  is  67'  long,  67|-'  deep,  171^'  high  with  4 
octagonal  pillars.  Sana  has  60  caves  of  which  one  is  6S^'  long,  61'  deep 
and  16^' high  with  6  pillars  in  front.  Kanheri  Caves  in  Salsetie  = 
Satshashthi  number  109.  Caitya  cave  is  86'  long,  39'  — lO"  wide  from 
wall  to  wall  with  32  pillars  round  the  nave  and  the  dagoba  is  16'  in 
diameter.  At  the  ends  of  the  verandah  two  Baddhas  23'  high.  On  the 
jamb  of  the  entrance  are  inscribed  the  names  of  Gotamiputra  and 
Mathariputa.  Darbar  Cave  Hall  is  73'  x  96'  with  2  stone  benches. 
There  are  two  inscriptions  ;  one  of  the  Guptas  of  5th  centuy  and 
another  dated  775  Saka  =  875  A.  D.  in  the   time  of    Kapardi,    a    Silahara 


ARTS  — ourTA  131 

feudatory  of    Rastrakuta   Amoghavarsa.     There    are  also     inscriptions  of 
Madariputa  and  Svami  Sakasena. 

Andhra  domination  in  S  India  lasted  between  200  B.  C— 250  A.  D. 
and  during  this  period  there  was  a  brisk  trade  with  the  Roman  Empire 
ofChm.iius  Augustus  and  Nero.  Arretine  pottery  and  amphorrc  ^ two- 
handled  storage  vessels  of  the  Greco-Romans  to  keep  wine  and  oil»  of 
1st  Century  A.  D.  have  been  found  2  miles  south  of  Pondiciiery, 
Pondouke  of  Ptolemy  at  Arikkamadu.  Monsoon  was  discovered  by 
Mippalus  in  47  A.  D.  which  facilitated  shipping  and  trade.  Below  the 
Arretine  base,  150  feet  long  building  of  1st  century  A.  D.  warehouse  is 
massively  built  on  a  lirick  foundation  on  the  rubble  and  sandy  bed.  There 
Greco  Roman  Rjuletied  flu  dishes,  whitish  gliss  bowls  and  pjitery  lamps, 
signed  with  K  and  plenty  of  Dinarus  have  been  found  with  some  copied 
potteries  signed  in  Brahmi  script,  but  in  Tamil  language  as  Tarapialar, 
Ainan,  Chattan  Avi  in  Koti  Ichan  Aditaipan  (a  relation  of  Chattan  Avi), 
Mati  Kulurun  akan  , wide-mouthed  pot  of  Muti  Kuluran,  Yakha-mita 
(Yaksha-mitra).  some  terracottas  of  tine  workmanship,  a  torso  of  female 
figure  with  a  piece  of  cloth  tucked  up  and  wound  round  the  waist  as  in 
Nagarjunakonda  In  exchange  of  pepper,  cinnamon,  nard-spines.  sandal- 
wood, ebony,  teak,  indigo,  honey  from  Indian  trees  (gurj,  the  shij)? 
brought  via  Alexandria  gold  and  silver  Dinarus,  red  corals,  wine  and 
pretty  slave  girls  for  which  there  was  a  great  demand.  Sil'ihara  f=>SilAgaha 
=  Siligrihaj  Caves  — Durvasa.  Cheri  Gudai  Sitamidi-in  Kewa  are  of  1st 
century  A.  D.  in  the  reign  of  Sviimi  Datta.  excavated  by  his 
minister  Moggali-puta  Muladeva  as  pleasure  retreats  ;  DurvasS  cave  is 
called  aramam  pavate  -  enjoymeut  hill  ;  another  yuvati  male  "hill  retreat 
to  meet  damsels;  another  for  Udaya  Tara- Rising  star,  a  female 
artiste. 

The  monolithic  cave  temples  of  Mamallapuram  are  Var/iha, 
Durga,  Tnmurti  and  Panca  Pandavas.  Both  the  Varnha  and  Panca 
P.indavas  have  a  verandah  with  slender  octagonal  pillars.  sup;>orted  by 
a  sitting  lion  ;  and  there  are  spirited  life  like  sculptures.  In  Adivaraha 
there  is  an  excellent  relief  of  Mahendra  Varman  and  his  two  queens. 
Mahendra  and  his  one  queen  wearing  loin  cloth  ;  another  queen  wearing 
a  trouser  ;  their  breasts  open,  but  all  wearing  conical  crowns  on  their 
head.  Gaja  Laksmi  on  a  lotus  flower  with  a  conical  hat  ;  two  queens 
with  water  jars  in  their  hanJs  are  standing  on  both  sides  of  her, 
attended  by  maid  servants  ;  two  elephants  standing  on  both  sides  of 
Laksmi  are  pouring  water  on  her  head  from  their  uplifted  hoods, 
8-armed  Durga  with  a  tall  crown  riding  astride  a  lion  is  fighting 
Mahisisura,  a  buflillo-headed  man  with  a  club  in  his  hands.  There  is 
a  high  relief  of  P.irvaii,  well-formed,  attended  by  four  Ganas  -  Erotas  ; 
lions  and  gjzelles  are  visible  in  the  upper  corners-  There  are  two. 
kneeling  figures  on  both  sides  of  the  feet  of  the  goddess.  Each  of 
them  with  his  left  hand  holds  his  long  hair  and  with  his  right 
his  sword,  as  if  to  cut  his  hair  and  offer  it  to  the  goddess.  In 
the  rockcut  temple  of  Trichinapoly  in  the  lower  cave,  the  same  is  visible 
though  the  relief  is  not  so  high.  It  was  the  custom  of  the  Greeks  and 
the  Romans  to  offer  their  cut  hair  to  Artemis  as  a  solemn  pledg:;  for 
victory  in  the  war.  Pancha  Pandavas  are  all  monoliths  and  have  been  cut 
from  a  series  of  boulder  like  rock  formations  on  the  seashore.  .Arjuna  Ratha 
is   19'xll'3"   and    28   feet   high  in  three  stories    with  pyramidal   tower. 


132  THE  LITEEABY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Draupadi  Ratha  is  finely  carved.  It  is  square  in  plan,  1 1  feet  each  way 
with  a  square  curvilinear  roof,  as  in  banboo  thatched  cottage  roofing  in 
Bengal,  rising  to  18  feet.  There  is  a  small  cell  in  the  interior  6'6"  in 
depth  from  the  outward  to  the  back  of  the  sides  4'6''  across  wherein 
there  is  a  statue  of  Laksmi,  standing  on  a  lotus,  4-armed,  bearing 
cakra  and  other  emblems.  On  either  side  of  doorway  there  are  two 
female  Dvarapalas  ;  there  are  also  other  female  figures  in  the  niches. 
Bhima's  Ratha  is  48'x25'  with  26'  feet  high  3-storied  elongated 
barrel  vault,  so  often  seen  in  Bhrirut,  Sanchi  and  Amaravati  reliefs. 
Sahadeva  Ratha  18'xll'  and  18'  high  3-storeys  shaped  like  apsidal 
Chaitya  (Skt.  Cita  =  funeral  relic  in  an  urn) -hall.  Dharmaraja 
26'9''  X  28',  8",  50'  high  four-storied  with  a  hexagonical  dome.  At  its 
south  side,  the  Mandapa  =  porch  is  17'xl2'  with  4  pillars;  in  the 
background  there  are  3  empty  shrines.  Mahisamardhini  Mandapa  is 
33^'  X  15'  ;  it  has  four  round  pillars  with  2  pilasters.  The  panel  on  the 
hill  side,  measuring  nearly  100  feet  in  length  and  50  feet  in  height,  called 
Arjuna's  penance,  is  a  spirited  representation  of  a  world  of  men  and 
animals.  The  shore  temple  within  range  of  the  spray  from  the  surf  was 
built  by  Rajasimha  ('678-800  A.  D.).  It  is  made  of  blocks  of  granite.  Its 
superficial  extent  is  1600  ft,  its  pyramidal  tower  (vimana)  over  the  central 
shrine  about  60  feet  high,  surmounted  by  an  umbrella-shaped  summit 
{Kalasa)  is  made  of  basaltic  rock.  The  shrine  facing  the  sea  contains  a 
16 -sided  Lingam,  carved  out  of  a  blue  stone.  Its  Gopuram  is  not 
prominent.  It  is  in  the  purest  early  Dravidian  style.  Parasol  became  the 
symbol  of  sovereignty  of  Sargon  of  Babylonia  ;  Achemenide  Darius  intro- 
duced it  in  Iran  ;  Scythians  brought  it  to  India  as  Satrap,  wielder  oi  satm 
=  umbrella.  Rajasimha  also  built  Kailasanatha  Temple  at  Kanchi,  almost 
a  replica  of  the  ancient  Egyptian  temple  architecture.  Its  multistoried  and 
sculptured  Gopuram  is  like  the  tall  richly  carved /y/^w  -  the  gate  entrance 
with  sloping  walls.  The  enclosure  is  surrounded  by  a  wall.  There 
is  the  courtyard  containing  some  shrines  and  sacred  tanks.  The  hypostyle 
large  hall  on  a  forest  of  sculptured  columns  on  which  there  are  flat  and 
broad  stone  slabs  for  roofing  is  prominent  in  both. 

The  sacred  lakes  of  ancient  Egypt,  attached  to  their  temples,  parti- 
cularly of  Amen  at  Karnak,  Hathor  at  Denderah,  were  artificial  basins,  sur- 
rounded by  walls  with  staircases  used  for  the  purificational  baths  of  priests 
and  pilgrims  and  to  supply  water  for  ritual  purposes  (I  L.  N.  March  19, 
1938).  It  is  called  Mantapam.  Mantapam  of  100,  500,  even  1000  columns 
are  known.  Attached  to  it  or  rather  in  continuation  of  it  is  the  vestibule 
— Festal  Hall — where  food,  flowers,  perfumes  are  offered  to  the  deity,  and 
dances  and  music  are  performed  for  his  entertainment.  Then  there  is 
the  sanctuary -adyton,  %i\io%  ^  garbha  griha  of  the  deity  over  which  there 
is  the  step-pyramidal  roof  tower  Viml^na.  On  all  three  sides  there  may  be 
rooms  for  keeping  the  goods  of  the  deity,  priests  and  devadasis.  There  is- 
a  corridor  passage  pradikshina  round  the  inside  of  the  enclosed  wall.  The 
similarity  between  the  Egyptian  and  the  Dravira  temples  even  in  details 
is  indeed  very  striking. 

Sittanavasal  Cave  is  ascribed  to  Pallava  Mahendravarman  /, 
for  his  inscribed  treatise  on  music  has  been  discovered  in  a  village, 
closeby.  The  shrine  is  9' -6"  square  and  7' -5"  high,  and  the  outer 
verandah  measures  22'6"  long,  6'- 6"  wide  and  8' -  3"  high.  A  fresca 
adorns  the  ceiling  of  the   verandah,  representing    a   lotus   tank,  enlivened 


ARTS— CAI  LB  t'AVE  183 

with  fish,  geese,  buffaloes,  elephants  and  three  animated  bathing  persons, 
two  of  whom  are  dark-skinned,  and  another  fair.  There  are  fine  life- 
size  figures  of  Jaina  Tirth  inkaras,  carved  on  the  face  of  the  rock,  three 
inside  the  inner  shrine,  and    one   on    each   end   of   the  verandah. 

There  is  a  portrait  of  a  regular  featured  crowned  dignified  benevolent 
king,  likely  to  be  M.ihendra  yarm  >n  on  a  pillar.  On  two  of  the  pillars  of 
the  facade  are  two  paintings  o^  Devadasis.  dancing  for  Siva;  D'Viid'ni 
possesses  marvellous  grace  and  her  attitude  is  a  study  in  itself;  the 
remarkable  ability  with  which  her  form  has  bei;n  outlined  has  led  some 
people  to  admire  more  the  e.xcellence  of  the  linework  of  the  frescoes, 
rather  than  the  colors  composing  them.  If  a  sl-ivc  was  dedicated  to 
some  god,  he  or  she  became  god's  property  and  free,  a  custom  prevalent 
in  Greece,  Susa  and  Elam  Devad-xsi  was  a  dedicated  girl,  a  pretty 
loving  slave  girl,  daughter  or  even  wife  who  were  regarded  as  the  property 
of  father  or  husband,  to  the  service  of  the  deity  =»Gk.  herroduli.  At 
Shinkot  in  Bajaur  there  is  a  Kharosthi  inscription  on  a  relic  casket  by 
a  Buddhist  Vijayamitra,  dated  25  Vais'-^ka  in  the  fifth  year  of  the  reign 
of  .Menander.  Junnar  Caves  number  57.  Fourth  cave  36' -8"  x  33' x  15' 
with  four  cells  in  each  of  the  3  inner  walls,  and  a  bench  running  quite 
round  the  hall  ;  it  has  2  doors  and  2  large  windows,  one  of  them  about 
10'  wide  grooved  in  the  shell  and  sides  for  a  wooden  frame.  Chaitya 
cave  is  circular  in  plan  25' -6"  across  with  a  dagoba  in  the  centre 
8' -2"  in  diameter,  surrounded  by  12  plain  octagonal  shafts  supporting 
a  dome  over  the  dagoba.  The  surrounding  aisle  is  roofed  Ijy  a  half-arch 
arising  from  the  wall  to  the  upper  side  of  an  architrave  7" -8'  deep 
over  the  pillar.  The  capital  of  the  dagoba  has  been  hewn  off  to 
convert  into  a  huge /z>/^rz.  Chaitya  cave  facing  south  measures  40' long 
22' -5"'  wide,  24' -2"  high  The  verandah  in  front  has  2  free  standing 
and  2  attached  pillars  like  those  of  Nasik.  The  door  is  plain 
5'  -9"  wide  ;  on  the  door  an  incised  inscription  :  A  pious  gift  of  charily 
for  a  sanctuary  by  purehearted  Suls'Aadatla,  a  trader,  son  of  Haranik.i. 

At  Carle  cave  two  royal  inscriptions  have  been  found  ;  one  by 
Uihavadatta,  son  of  Dimika,  son  in-law  of  Raja  Kihaharta  Kihatrapa 
I^ahapana  ;  another  :  This  rock  mansion,  the  most  excellent  in  /cimbu- 
dvipahy  Agnifnitfa  (  170-1'jO  B.  C).  It  is  12  V  -  3"  from  the  entrance 
to  the  backwall  by  45' -  6"  in  width.  Central  aisles  25' -  7"  ;  each  of 
the  sides  aisles  is  lO'  wide  include  the  thickness  of  pilars.  15  pillars  on 
each  side  separate  the  nave  from  the  aisle.  Each  pillar  has  tall  base  an 
octagonal  shapt  and  richly  ornamented  capital  on  which  kneel  2  el-phants, 
each  generally  bearing  a  man  and  a  woman  ;  and  sometimes  two  damsels. 
7  pillars  behind  the  altar  are  plain  octagonal  pieces  without  either  base 
or  capital.  Above  them  is  the  semicircular  roof  in  the  general  section  and 
somewhat  stilted  at  the  side.  Immediately  under  the  semi  dome  of  the 
apse,  and  nearly  where  the  altar  stands  in  Christian  Churches,  which  it 
closely  resembl-s  is  placed  the  dagoba.  The  outer  porch  is  52'  x  15'.  and 
is  closed  in  front  by  an  outer  screen,  composed  of  two  octagonal  pillars  ; 
above  this  is  a  Vihsra  2S'  x  27'  x  8"  with  4  cells  in  each  side  and  6  in  the 
back  with  benches  The  other  Vih\ra  is  36' -  6"  x  48' x  8"  with 
cells  in    the    right.  5  in  the  left  and  6  in  the  back. 

Bhamburde  5.'«V(z  rock  temple  is  160  feet  in  length,  100  ft  across  ; 
the  roof  of  the  pavilion  has  been  hewn  after  the  shape  of  an  umbrella. 


134  THE  LITERARY  HISTOBY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Mominabad  or  Jogai  Am,  the  cave  has  an  open  court  in  front  90'x85'  in 
the  middle  of  which  stands  a  low  pavilion  84|-'  square  with  the  square 
sloping  roof;  the  hall  is  91'  x45',  supported  by  32  pillars.  In  the  backwall 
there  is  a  room  for  Trimurti.  Nasik  cave  2  is  11^'  x  4i'  with  2  cells  at 
the  back.  On  the  backwall  of  verandah,  there  is  an  inscription  !  Sidham 
Rano  V^sathitputasa  sarapadumayasa  sabhachare  chha  the  6  gimapakhe 
pajham  divase  =  Siddham  in  the  sixth  year  of  the  king  prosperous 
Pulumaya,  son  of  Vasithi,  in  the  fortnight  of  Grishma  on  the  fifth  day. 
Cave  3  is  41'  wide.  46' deep  with  a  bench  on  three  sides,  18  cells  and  2 
openings  on  the  verandah.  The  side  pilasters  are  dividt  d  into  6  panels, 
each  filled  with  2  men  and  1  woman  in  different  stages  of  a  struggle  which 
seems  to  end  in  the  woman  being  carried  off  by  one  of  the  men.  Over 
the  door  there  are  3  symbols— Bodhi  tree.  Dagoba  and  Cakra  with  worship- 
pers At  each  side  is  an  ungainly  Dvarapala,  holding  up  a  bunch  of 
flowers.  The  verandah  has  6  octagonal  columns  without  base  between 
highly  sculptured  pilastars.  The  cave  is  ascribed  to  Satakanni  Gotamiput 
and  his  queen  Vasishthi.  Cave  8  has  a  hall  43'  wide,  45'  deep  with  6 
bell  haped  Achaemenian  capitals  ;  it  has  5  benched  cells  on  each  side  and  6 
in  the  back,  and  at  each  of  the  verandah  there  is  cell  with  the  inscription  : 
The  benefaction  of  Dakhamitr:\,  the  daughter  of  king  Kshaharnta 
Kshatf2pa  Nahapana,  and  wife  oi  Usharadata,  son  o{  Dimika.  Cave 
12  hall  measures  22'- lO"  wide,  32' -2"  deep,  and  has  a  back  aisle 
screened  off  by  two  columns.  On  the  wall  of  the  back  aisle  is  a  standing 
figure  of  Buddha  3|  feet  high.  An  inscription  in  3^  lines  says  that  ^'it 
was  the  work  of  Indr^gnidatta,  son  of  Dharmadhsa,  a  northerner,  a 
Yavanaka,  a  native  of  Dattamitri  as  a  shrine  for  a  Chaitya  in  Mt  Trirasmi. 

Pandu  Lena  Chaitya  cave  13  measures  38' -  10"  x  21  -  7"  and  the 
nave  from  the  door  to  the  dagoba  25'  -  4''  x  10  and  23'  -  3"  high  with  5 
octagonal  pillars  Cave  14  is  14'  -  3"  square  with  6  cells,  2  on  each  side. 
In  the  front  wall  are  2  lattice  windows,  and  in  the  verandah  slender 
square  pillars,  the  middle  portion  of  the  shaft  being  chamfered  to  an 
octagonal  shape.  Over  one  window  a  Pali  inscription  mentions  that  it 
was  constructed  by  Saman  officers  of  Kanh  raja  of  the  S'itavahanas,  (Skt. 
satam  =  Zd  satem  =  Lith.  szimtns  =  Finnish  sata  =  Hungarian  szaz  =  Mar- 
dwin  sada  ;  Skt.  fnakshi=M^xA\v\x\  meks  (bee^  ;  no  word  of  similar 
derivation  appears  in  any  Indo  European  language),  residing  in  N^sika. 
Cave  15  is  37^'  in  width,  61^'  deep  The  antechamber  is  slightly  raised 
above  the  level  of  the  floor  from  which  it  is  divided  by  2  richly  carved 
columns  between  antas  (Skt.  ata  =  frames  of  the  doors'.  On  either  side  of 
the  outerwall  of  the  shrine  is  a  Vajrapani  9^-'  high  holding  a  lotus  stalk  in 
his  hand  and  a  Sakti  by  his  left  side.  Within  the  shrine  is  an  image  of 
Buddha  10'  high,  seated  with  his  feet  on  a  lotus  flower.  There  is  an 
inscription  oi  Yajna  Sitakarni  G'tamiputm  in  the  seventh  year  of  his 
reign,  mentioning  that  it  being  under  construction  for  many  years  ;  it  was 
carried  to  completion  by  the  wife  of  the  Commander  in-chief.  Pitalkhora 
Cave  measures  50'  long,  34^  wide.  30^"  high  to  the  top  of  the  vaulted 
roof  with  20  pillars,  having  carved  in  high  relief  and  painted 
winged  horses,  bulls  and  lions  on  their  capitals,  closely  resembling 
Assyrian  or  Achaemenian  sculptures.  Ghatatkacha  cave  at  Jinjala  I3n> 
west  of  Ajanti  is  a  20-pillared  hall,  square,  bases  changing  into  octagon, 
J6-siled  and  32-fluted  pillars  On  the  back  wall  there  is  a  much  defaced 
inscription  of  an  Asmaka  prince.     At  Patna  near   Pitalkhora,   two  18' x  6* 


ARTS — 3RAVANABBLG0LA  IS") 

\erandahs.  supported  hy  4  pillars  leading  to  a  hall  20"  x  1  f  with  2 
pillars  In  the  backwall  are  found  high  relief  of  a  male  with  a  child. 
Indra  with  Indr'ini.  a  cross  lcgt;ed  Jina  2' hi!;h.  a  life  si^c- d  Jina  in  the 
southern  side.  Dharasinva  cave,  36ni  north  of  Shi^lajur  has  a 
vestibule  76'  lone^.  10'-  4  wide,  lending  to  a  hall  82'  long,  97' -  «5'  wide, 
roof  supported  by  82  columns.  There  is  an  image  of  Seshnphnni  Piina- 
natlia  who  is  supposed  to  have  married  the  daughter  of  F\isenjit  of 
KosalS.     Another  cave  59'    square  with    twenty     11' -3"    high   columns. 

The  Island  of  Gh'irnpuri  is  known  as  Elephanta,  because  the 
Portuguese  found  near  old  landing  place  on  the  smthern  side  of  the 
Island  an  elephant  13'  — 2"  long  and  7'— 4"  high.  As  the  elephant  began 
to  crumble,  it  has  iieen  removed  and  reassembled  in  Victoria  Gardens, 
Bombay.  IthisGcives  th-:;  most  important  being  the  Western  Cave 
130'  <  13"  with  porticoes  on  three  open  sides  54'  long  K^'  deep  Trimurti 
is    l2'-9"    higii.     Z>:;t^<?A//<M- 15'— 2"  high.     ^nM,/«a/-»' is  12'— 9"  high. 

Gang^dhara  Siva  with  4  arms  is  16'  high  •,  from  his  coiled  dressed 
hair  rises  a  3  headed  female,  figure  whose  arms  are  bruken.  On  Siva's  left 
is  nearly  nude  Pirvati.  12' — 4"  high  wearing  a  circlet  round  the  brow  from 
under  which  the  hair  is  represented  in  small  curls  round  the  brow.  There 
are  also  a  three  stringed  necklace  and  a  girdle.  The  body  is  beautifully 
carved.  The  m.irriage  of  Siva  with  Urn  i  on  the  western  porch  is  remark- 
able. Siva  sits  proudly  on  a  high  chair  resting  his  left  leg  on  the  right  bent 
thigh,  and  massaging  the  foot  with  his  right  hand.  Uma  standing 
by  his  left  side  looks  shy  and  bashful  like  a  bride  ;  her  hair  escapes  in 
little  curls  from  under  a  broad  jew-lled  fillet  that  I)ind3  her  brow.  She 
wears  heavy  earrings  and  several  necklaces.  Not  only  the  rock  is  soft  and 
powdery,  the  Portuguese  in  their  religious  z-^al  have  tried  to  annihilate 
every  memorial,  and  have  destroyed  and  damaged  many  sculptures  of 
striking  beauty  and  artistic  merit,  and  the  age  and  the  weathering  are 
completing  the  work  of  the  spoiler.  The  inscription,  found  in  the  place, 
was  sent  to  Lisbon  with  many  sculptures  ;  no  trace  of  it  is  known. 

Badami  Caves  of  650  A  D.  Verandah  31*  long,  lb'  deep  with  4 
square  pillars  in  front.  Behind  it  is  a  hall  6'  deep  and  25^'  long. 
Mahivira  seated  on  simhasana  with  feet  folded  in  front  of  the  body  and 
hands  laid  on  their  sides.  At  the  ends  of  verandah,  G^^t  imasvami,  a 
disciple  of  Mah5vira,  and  Parsan  tha  77' high.  Aihole  verandah  is  32' 
long  and  7^'  wide,  supported  by  4  pillars  ;  the  hall  is  15'  long  and 
11' — 8"  wide  ;  the  Chapel    14' x  5',  and    ParsanStha    in   it    in    high    relief. 

Sravanabelgola  contains  more  than  12  Jaina  Bastis.  On  Candrngiri  is 
the  Parsanatha  Bastis,  built  and  elegantly  decorated  about  lOOO  .A.  D.  ; 
the  image  inside  made  out  of  blackstone  and  more  than  l5'  high  is 
that  of  ParsanUha  ;  on  the  Manast.imbbha  in  its  front  4  lovely  figures 
representing  Jaina  deicies  are  repres','nted  at  the  top  and  4  nior-;  at  the 
base.  Near  it  the  Kattale  Basti  for  its  interior  is  entirely  dark,  being 
windowless  inow — windows  have  been  opened),  thougli  largest  on  the  hill, 
was  built  by  Ganga  Raji,  the  general  of  Hoysali  king  Vishnuvardhana. 
Almost  within  its  compound,  there  is  a  tiny  shrine,  called  (Sandra 
Gupta  Basti,  attributed  to  Maury.i  ditidra  Gupta  by  the  Jainas,  though 
Very  much  doubted  by  scholars.  It  has  a  finely  carved  door  way.  Two  stune 
screens  stand  on  either  side  of  it,  and  in  each  one.  45  tiny  but  elegant 
panels  are  carved   with   scenes  from  the    life  of  the   Maurya  emperor — 


136  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

from   his   birth   onward    to   his  last  days,  when  he  became  a  Jaina  ascetic 
under    Bhadrabahu.     There   was    a    famine   at    Pataliputra.     Thousands 
were   dead    in    the   streets  and    thousands  more  were  dyhig  everyday.     It 
sickened    the    heart   of  Candragupta,    who  abdicating  in  favor  of  his  son 
Simhasena,  followed    the   Jaina  seer  Bhadrabahu.     They  travelled   south. 
Candragupta   liked  the  scenic  charms  of  Candragiri  and  Vindhyagiri,  and 
remained  in  the  cave  there   for    12  years  when  by  Sallekhana  (  first  taking 
rice  and  milk,    gradually  taking  only  a    handful   of   water,    and  then  even 
abandoning  it)  =  gradual  starvation  he  died  there  in  298  B.C.     Next  is  the 
Camanda  Raya  Basti  built  by  Camunda  Raya,  minister  to  the  Ganga  king 
Raja  Malla,  a  handsome  structure  with  a  fine  tower  ;  he  also  had   the   hill 
top  of  granite  Vindhabetta    into   a   courtyard  where  57'3"   high   standing 
nude  image  of  Gotama  Svimi  (Gometesvara)  stands  in  a  state  of  meditation 
so  profound  that  representations  of  ant  hills,  rises  on  either  side  with  figures 
of  creeping    plant,    springing   from    it  which    twines,  over  the  thighs  and 
arms,  terminating  in  a  tendril  with  bunches  of  fruits,  dominating  the  entire 
landscape  450'  above  the  level  of  the  plain  in  938  A.  D.      The  face,  fore- 
head,   abdomen  and  arms  are  well-proportioned  and  naturalistic,  the  penile 
foreskin  is  kept  tightened  over  the  glans  by  a  screw  ring  ;    the  testicles  are 
pendant.     Not  far  off  at  Xemur,  there  is  another  similar    image   38'    high, 
made  in  1603  ;  and  at  Karkalu,  24  miles  w  of  Yemur  41'5''  similar  nude 
image   with   creeping    plants   creeping   over   the    lower   limbs   and  p.irtly 
covering  the  penis  and  the  testicles    was  hewn  out  of    the  granite  rock  by 
sculptor  Aristonemi  is  983  A.D.     The  next  Basti  Eradukatte,  the  approach 
to  the  statue  of  which  is  through  an  archway  and  about  600  steps   cut    into 
the   solid   rock    of  the    hill,    leading   to   a    temple,  was  built  in  11 18  by 
Laksmi  Devi,  consort  of  Ganga   Raj  i.      Savatigandha  vardhana  Basti  was 
built  by  king  Vishnu-vardhana's  queen  Santala  Devi  whose  locks   of   hair 
were  black  and  thick  like    moving  bees,  whose  waist    was   slim   like    that 
of   bees,    and   whose   voice   and  virtues  were  sweet  like  bee-extract  honey. 
The   rock  cut    image    of    Venugjp\la    Swanii  at    Gingee    is    very     fine  ; 
Krishna  is  playing  bamboo  flute  and  dancing  ;  two  Gopis,  almost  nude,  are 
dancing   round  him  ;  unfortunately  their  heads  are  missing. 
_     Nalanda    is  an  ancient  place.     Here  Buddha  stayed  in  the  Parvarika 
Kmra    Bntkk     rest    house    under  the  mangoe  grove)  where  S iriputta  paid 
him  a  visit;  ;  he   also  stayed   a   while  in  the  bath  hall  of  the  banker  Lepa 
when    Udaka  saw  hini_;  it  was  from  Nalanda,  Buddha  went  to  Patalipuira 
which   according    to   Ananda    was    a    much  inferior  place.     According  to 
Kalpasutra^    Mahavira.    a    contemporary    of    Buddha,  also    spent    a  rainy 
season    there      According    to    Sutmkntanga,    Nilanda   contained    many 
hundreds  of  buildings.     But   Fa    Hien    who    travelled    throughout    India 
about   400    A.  D,    does    not    mention    Nalanda      Kut  I-Tsing  who  started 
from   China   in   671    and    arrived   at   Timralipta   (the  sea-side  of  modern 
Tamluk)  and  studied  at  Nalanda  for    12    years   and   on    his   return    home 
took    with   him  400    Sanskrit  texts  containg  503,003  slokas   mentions  that 
Nilanda  had  8  halls  and  300  apartments      Hieun  Tsiang    who    halted   for 
19    months    for   study    in    the    famous     Nilanda     Monastic     University 
mentions  that  more  then  10,030  teachers  and   students   lived    there  ;     that 
Sakraditya,      Buddhagupta,     Tath agate.     Bahditya    and    Vajra    built    5 
Samgharamas  there  ;  a  king  of  Central  India    established    another   magni- 
ficent monastery  and  built  round  these  edifices  a  high  wall    with   one   gate 
where    Dvara   Pandita  lived  and  examined  scholars  seeking  admittance  to 


ARTS — NALANDA  137 

its  learned  precints.  "Tlie  richly  adorned  towers  and  fairy  like  turrcli 
like  pointed  hill  tops  are  congre>^ated  togi-ther.  The  ol«crvatory  seems  to 
be  lost  in  the  vapours  of  the  morning  and  the  upper  room  towers  alx)ve  the 
clouds.  From  the  windows  one  may  see  how  the  winds  and  clouds  produce 
new  forms  and  above  the  soaring  caves  th«  conjunction  of  the  sun  and  the 
moon  may  be  observed  How  the  deep  translucent  ponds  bear  on  their 
surface  blue  lotus  intejrmingled  with  Kanaka  flowt-rs  of  deep  red  colour, 
and  at  intervals  the  Amra  groves  shed  over  all  their  shades.  All  the 
outside  courts  in  which  are  the  priests'  chambers  are  of  four  stages. 
The  stages  have  dragon  projections  and  coloured  eaves,  the  pearlred 
pillars,  carved  and  ornamented,  richly  adorned  balustrades  and  the 
roofs  covered  with  tiles  that  reflect  the  light  in  a  'thonsand  shades. 
These  things  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  scene  "  According  to  Tibetan 
r.ccounts  the  University  Library,  situated  in  Dharmaganja  (Piety  Muit) 
consisted  of  3  grand  buildings— Ratna  sagara.Ralnu-dadhi,  Ratna- 
ranjika.  Ratnadadhi  was  9  stories  high  and  in  it  was  kept  specially 
Prajna  Paramit  i  Sutra.  In  the  ruins  of  Nalanda,  a  B'lladilya  inscription 
has  been  found.  Baladitya  rebuilt  a  temple  after  its  destruction  by  fire, 
and  according  to  Hieun  Tsiang,  Baladitya's  temple  resembled  Buddha 
Gaya  temple  in  many  respects-  A  monastery  quadrangle,  the 
4  sides  of  a  ruined  stone  temple,  square  in  plan,  has  been  ascribed  to 
Bal  iditya.  The  entrance  to  the  temple  was  up  a  low  flight  of  stt-ps 
on  the  east.  The  center  of  each  facade  is  relieved  by  a  slight  projection, 
but  the  feature  of  sp;cial  interest  is  a  dado  of  211  sculptured  panel 
over  the  external  base  moulding,  showing  a  greal  variety  of  sculptures. 
The  mound  is  regarded  as  Blladitya's  temple  which  though  resembles 
Buddha  Gaya  temple  in  plan,  but  in  its  present  form  is  only  170  feet 
high.  At  the  foot  of  Vagisvari  statue,  there  is  an  inscribed  name 
of  Parama  Bhattaraka  Mahariijidhiri ja  Sr!  Gop;da  The  monastery 
(site  no  1)  measures  205^x168';  the  walls  are  6^'  thick  which  is 
increased  by  a  foot  on  the  western  side.  Eight  defferent  strata  h.ave 
been  discoverad.  As  the  monastery  was  destroyed  by  fire,  or  colhi)sed 
from  faulty  workmanship,  new  structures  were  erected  on  the  ruins 
of  the  old  ;  unmistakable  traces  of  Inirning  are  evident,  and  in  pl.ices 
charcoal  is  lying  even  now.  \  copper  plate  surmounted  by  a  seal 
soldered  to  its  top,  bearing  Dhirma  Cakra  flmked  by  two  gazelles, 
recumbent  with  heads  upraised-,  looking  towards  the  Wheel  of  Law. 
This  was  the  official  s^al  and  insignia  of  Sri  NUanda  Maha  Vihasiya 
Arya  Bhiksu  Samghisya— The  Venerable  Communly  of  Monks  of 
Sri  Nalanda.  It  wAs  also  the  insignia  of  the  monastery  of  Sirnath 
The  copper  plate  had  suffered  fr  )m  the  fire  which  destroyed  the 
building.  It  records  Sri  Deva  Pala  Dynasty,  bearing  a  date  equivalent 
to  891  A  D..  the  grant  of  5  villages  in  Rjigriha  and  Gayi  for  the  up 
keep  of  the  monastery  and  provision  of  comforts,  for  the  monks  arriving 
there  from  all  quarters,  made  at  the  request  of  Sri  Balapatra  Deva. 
the  Sadendra  king  of  Sumatra,  who  b^re  the  cost  of  building  the 
structure.  Though  NUanda  was  a  University  town,  SJme  of  the  plaques 
are  erotic.  1.  The  female  has  thrown  her  left  hand  round  the  neek 
of  her  male  partner  but  he  is  sitting  hesitatingly  with  both  hands 
interlocked.  2  The  male  flgure  is  coaxing  the  femih  partner, 
caressing  her  chin  with  his  left  hand.  3.  An  am  )rous  c  mple  embra- 
cing each  other,  the  female  holding  the  wine   cup      All   of  Sunga   period. 


138  THE  LITERARY  HISTO^riY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA, 

Dharmap^la  founded  Vikramasill  Vih'ira  with  lOS  temples,  6  schools 
and  114  teachers,  but  reduced  to  rubbisli  by  Moslem  iconoclastic 
invaders  wiio  U5ed  the  precious,  palm  leaf  library  collections  to  make 
hot  water  for  their  baths. 

PanduathHin  =  PurAnadhistana,    about    2    miles    from     Srinagar     on 
the   main     Jammu     Road,     has    a   small   square     stone     chamber     with 
pyramidal      roof    of     Kuihan     construction     witii     doorway     on     each 
side  ;   the    main    entrance    is     towards     the     north     with     the     figure    of 
Lakulisa  in  the  trefoil    niche   above      Scythianized    Karkota    llCar  Kitan) 
Lalitiditya   (724-60)    built   a   rectangular    temple   (  0'  x  30'    at    Martanda 
=  Mattan,     6     miles     east     of     Islamabad    (Anantanag)    on    an    el-jvated 
plateau,  overlooking   an    extensive   sweep  of  the  valley,  built  up  of  massive 
huge  blocks  of  limestone  piled  upon  each   other,  like  the  Baalbek  temple  in 
Lebanon  valley.  The  width  of  the  facade  is  increased  to  60'  by  the  addition 
of  wings.   The  open  courtyard  is  surrounded  by  a  220' x  142'  quadrangular 
peristyle    which    consisted   of     rounds    of   cells,    preceded     by     porticoes 
supported  on  84  quasi  Doric  Romanized    16   fluted   instead  30  at  Baalbek 
with    intervening    niches,     surrounded     by    trefoil    arches    and  triangular 
gable.     The  roof,  statues,  relics,  and   majority     of    the    pillars    have    been 
destroyed   or    used    in    VIosques    by    the  "'great    iconoclast    Sikander    bin 
Shikan.     Il    seems    that    the    Parthian     conquests   of   Syria   gave    many 
Karkitan    workmen     to     be   acquainted    with    the   Greco-Roman   simple 
dignity   of   outline    without   confused    ensemble    of     ornaments    on     the 
walls   of  the   structure   or   its  pillars      Leading   to   the    sanctuary    is     a 
large     anterior     chamber      {antamla)     with     basreliefs     of     Vishnu     as 
Surya   and    Lakshmi  ;  each    is   duplicate    upon    the   panels    of   its    walls. 
On    the    left    wall      is     carved       goddess     Ganga        on       her       Makara 
V^hana  ;  on    the   opposite    wall    is     depicted    goddess    Yamuna    on    her 
Kurma  =  tortoise  vehicle      Representation  of   Visiinu    is    three  faced,     the 
right  face    depicting    Nara-Simba    iman-Iion),     while    the    left   one  that  of 
a  boar  (Varaha)      Lalitaditya    built    a   statue    of    Mukta-ICesava  =  Vislinu 
with  84,000  tolls  of  gold  at  Parihaspur  =  Paspur.     Another  statue  Parihisa 
-  Kesava=  Vishnu    was   con3tiu:ted    with  3,36000   toliS    of     silver.     He 
built    another   statue    of    Buddha     with      100  64,000     tolas     of     bronze. 
Avantivarman  (855-813)  of  another  Scythian  tribe  that  overthrew  Karkotas, 
built  3  temples  ow  the  right  bank  of  Vitasti,  about  18  miLs  fr;m  Srinagar. 
Avantisvara   and    Avanti    Svami   on    Martanda    pattern.     Avanti     Svami 
Temple,    dedicated    to     Vishnu,     particulirly     its    basement,     courtyard 
and  peristyle  being    completely  hurried  underground    through    flood     silts. 
thus   escaped    the  destrnctive  hands  of  Mahamedan    bigotry.  Archeological 
excavations  in    1915    have  revealed  the  delicate    ani  ornate    carvings    of 
the  16  -fluted  tall  coluraus  in  their  original  beauty  and  grandeur. 

Ceylon  was  settled  by  Hamitic  Shangallas  who  used  to  wear  ivory- 
comb  on  their  head  as  in  predynastic  Badar  of  Egypt,  and  they  pushed 
to  wilderness  the  Australoid  Veddhas  who  called  themselves  Yakkas. 
From  their  settlement  the  Island  was  called  Sinhaladvipa=  Pali  Sthala 
-dipa,  Ar  Serendib,  which  was  modified  by  European  navigators  into  , 
Zeilon,  now  called  Ceylon.  There  is  no  tradition  that  Rama  landed 
there  in  search  of  Sita,  abducted  by  Ravana,  king  of  Lanka,  though 
Sita-waka  >Sit.a's  town),  and  Sita-eliya  (Sita's  glade),  are  found  in  the 
Island,    separated  by  a   high  mountain  range.    Lith   lanka,    lenke     means, 


ARTS— ANURADnAPUH  139 

wooded  valley.  Vijaya  across  the  sea  came  to  Ccjlon  in  ■\H.'^  \).  C. 
and  settled  at  Tambapanni,  marrying  the  Shangalla  crown  princess.  A 
century  after.  Vijiya.  Pan(lukal)haya.  direct  heir  to  the  throne,  wat;cd 
war  no;ainst  his  miternal  uncles  and  succ-odrd  in  i)tcominfi  supreme 
ruler  in  .'67  B.  C,  making  Anuradhayma  his  Capital.  Mis  d<sendent 
Moriyo  D.'vanampiya  Tis^a  sent  an  embassy  to  Maurya  Devnnampiya 
Asoka  in  247  H.  C.  clairnini;  to  be  a  distant  offshoot  of  the  same 
clan.  There  is  a  Moriyar  clan  in  S.  India.  So  it  seems  that  Vijaya 
was  either  a  Maurya  or  a  mixed  Maurya-Pandu  Asoka  sent  his  son 
Mahinda  and  his  dau'^hter  Saniiha-Mittfi  with  a  branch  of  the  Fio  tree. 
The  tree  from  the  branch  planted  at  .Xnurfidhapura  is  still  the  sacred 
oldest  authenticated  Bo-tree  after  vicissitudes  and  not  infr«'qu-nt 
attempts  to  injure  and  destroy  it  as  a  symbol  of  dominant  Buddhism 
Anuradhapur  Monastery  was  nine  storied  1 000— chambered  construction 
with  copper  roof;  1600  stone  pillars  12'  hii;h  wliich  once  supported 
the  building  still  stand  in  40  parallel  lines.  Tissa  and  his  nobles 
adopted  Buddhism,  and  Buddhism  was  declared  as  the  stale  religion. 
Monks  and  nuns  multiplied.  Asoka  s-nt  masons  and  artisans  to 
build  stone  monastaries  for  them  at  Anuradhapur  and  other  places. 
But  though  through  Buddhism  the  moral  and  artistic  development 
of  the  people  became  manifest,  many  members  of  the  noble  familes. 
preferring  to  be  monks  and  nuns,  thus  through  indirect  birth  control, 
their  flighting  pjwer  became  reduced.  In  l-fS  B  C.  a  Tamil  captain 
named  Elala  from  Chola  country  occupied  and  ruled  Northern  Ceylorj 
for  45  years  from  .Anur  idhapur.  The  ri^yal  family  retreated  to  the 
south  of  the  island  and  ruled  from  Kaliniya  near  Colombo  and  Manama 
in  the  extreme  South  P.ut  Dutta  idustd "  nawihty)  Gamini  a  scion 
of  Magama  branch  of  the  royal  family,  organized  an  army,  marched 
120  miles  north  and  defeated  Elala  in  pitched  battle  near  .-XnurSdh.ipur 
in  101  B.  C.  and  became  the  supreme  lord  of  entire  Ceylon.  Dutta 
Gamini  was  a  great  builder.  He  built  a  9  storied  huge  monastery  in 
AnurSdhapura  whose  1600  stone  pillars  still  remain  as  the  parts  of 
tlie  ground  fioor,  roofed  with  brass,  hence  called  Brazen  Palace. 
Tamils  again  attacked  in  77  B.  C.  and  again  in  44  B  C.  wlien  Vatta- 
Gamini  ( Valagambahu*  had  to  flee  into  hiding  in  the  mountainous 
forests  of  central  Ceylon.  Five  Tamil  army  chiefs  ruled  in  succession 
until  Vatta-Gamini  reoccupied  his  throne  after  15  years  Yalta- 
Gamini  had  taken  refuge  in  the  natural  rock  cave  of  Dumballa  whose 
ceiling  and  walls  are  covered  with  paintings  by  him.  To  prevent 
the  rain  flowing  over  the  mouth  of  the  cave  round  its  curving  roof  into 
the  interior,  a  drip  ledge  was  cut  a  few  inches  deep  Vatta  Gamini 
summoned  a  congress  of  learned  monks  and  nuns  at  .Aluviharc.  2  miles 
north  of  Matale,  to  commit  to  writing  their  collated  versions  and  oral 
renditions  into  Buddhist  scriptures.  Tamils  did  not  disturb  the  peace 
for  7  centuries.  The  royal  occupation  of  .AnurTdhapun  was  however 
interrupted  for  18  years  between  479-497  A.D.  A  parricide  king 
Kassapa  made  Singurija  rock  his  fortress  and  built  a  palace  on  its 
summit  ;  he  built  great  flights  of  steps  and  a  winding  gallery  for  ascent 
and  decent,  in  fear  of  Moggalana.  the  lawful  heir  to  his  murdered 
father  who  however  with  Tamil  troops  from  S  India,  and  rallying 
to  his  standard  the  Simhalese,  attacked  and  defeated  K-ssapa  troop, 
and  Kassapa  committed  suicide  on  the  fleld   of   batile-     KAssapa    however 


140  THE  LITBRAET  HISTOBT  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

has  left  an  enduring  memorial  in  fresco  paintings  in  pockets  of  Sigurija, 
about  40  feet  above  the  gallery  similar  to  Gupta  and  Ajanta  works.  In 
8th  century  the  inroads  of  Tamils  made  Pulastipura,  now  Polonnaruva,  a 
safer  residence  for  Ceylonese  kings  for  some  years.  But  the  Chola 
emperor  in  1031  conquerd  all  Ceylon  except  southern  two-thirds  and 
renamed  Pulastipura  as  Jananathapura.  But  the  princes  and  the  people 
rallied  round  Parakrama  B^hu  1140  —  1173.  who  with  the  help  of 
Tamil  soldiers,  not  only  occupied  Palonnaruva  and  made  it  his  eapital 
and  embellishing  it  during  33  years  of  his  reign,  with  a  Sat  Mahal 
Pasada.  Lanka  Tilaka,  Lotus  Bath.  Wata-da  gee  (Circular  Temple),  made 
successful  expeditions  into  S.  India  and  Cambodia,  Near  Polonnaruva 
there  is  a  rock  shrine  -  Gal-vih"ira.  The  cave  has  been  scooped  out 
from  the  rock  in  which  a  seate  1  Buddha  on  a  decorated  pedestal 
beneath  a  stone  canopy  has  been  chiselled  out  of  solid  rock,  perfect 
in  its  clarity  of  line  and  in  the  detail  of  its  carving,  On  each  side  of 
the  cave  have  been  hewn  the  reclining  Buddha  43  feet,  long,  his  head 
resting  on  a  pillow,  his  right  hand  under  his  cheek  and  the  garment 
falling  in  folds  about  him,  the  eyes  closed  on  the  massive  face,  having 
the  expression  of  strength  and  repose.  24  feet  high  relief  statue  of 
Ananda  in  a  magnificent  pose  with  folded  arms  guards  the  figure  of 
the  sleeping  Buddha. 

Hoysala  temples  are  small,  polygonal  or  star-shaped,  erected  on 
a  pedestal,  a  few  feet  high,  the  roofs  are  stepped  one  or  more  domes  The 
entrance  and  doors  are  lavishly  decorated,  displaying  the  best  of  the 
architect  •,  the  walls  and  domes,  inside  and  outside,  are  covered  without 
an  inch  of  space  being  left  vacant  to  narrate  mythological  stories  ;  as 
each  chapter  of  the  story  is  complete,  it  is  indicated  by  a  door 
closed  or  half  closed.  "Hoysala  kings  were  originally  Jainas  In 
1117  Bittideva  became  a  Vaishnava.  and  was  called  Vishnu  Vardhan. 
and  he  built  the  Relur  Temple  178' x  156' with  beautiful  doorways  and 
carvings.  Soma-danda  Nayaka,  brotherin  law  and  C  in  C  of  Hoysala  king 
Narasmgha  II,  built  Agrahhra  (a  group  of  houses  for  priests),  a  Siva 
Temple,  as  a  seat  of  learning  and  called  the  place  Somanathapur.  In  1269 
he  built  the  K«isava  Temple  with  three  domes,  facing  east  In  the 
middle  shrine,  the  image  of  Kesava  was  placed,  but  it  is  missing  In 
the  southern  shrine  is  Venugopala  iKrishna  with  bamboo  flute),  and  in  the 
northern  Janardhana  (protector  of  the  people).  The  architect  sculptor  was 
Jakanachari  under  whose  supervision  not  only  this  very  pretty  Prasanna 
Chenna  Keshava  but  also  o^  Halebed  temple  were  built  Halebed,  known 
as  Dara  samudra  was  sacked  and  demolished  by  the  victorious  army 
of  Mallikaffor,  Narasimha  was  captured  and  one  of  his  sons  was 
carried  away  as  a  hostage-  Eastern  Gangas.  a  branch  of  Huna  Hoysalas, 
ruled  Orissa  for  a  thousand  years  from  6th  to  16th  centuries,  overthrowing 
the  Kesaries,  and  during  that  period,  splendid  temples  at  Bhuvaneswar, 
Puri,  Khiching  and  Konaraka  were  built,  resembling  Hoysala  temples  and 
temples  of  Dharwar  where  Hunnic  W.  Ganges  ruled  The  curvilinear 
deep  vertical  ribs,  and  the  steeple  tower,  crowned  with  a  huge-ribbed  flat 
dome  (amalaka  ,  the  top  of  which  is  ornamented  with  a  water  jar  ikalasa) 
are  more  marked  in  Orissa  than  at  Dharawar-  Muktesvara,  Kedaresvara, 
Antanta  Vasu  Deva,  Parasuramesvara,  Lingaraj,  and  Raj  i  Rani  (built  in 
1000  A.  D.)  temples  of  Bhuvanesvara  are  well  known  for  their  beauty, 
and   rich   carvings.    Konaraka  Temple  was  built   in    1276   as    a   chariot 


arts  —  mithdna  sculptures  J41 

pattern  of  sun  god  with  horses  (7  days  of  the  weeks  and  12  pairs  of 
wheels  (12  months  of  the  year)  l)y  Nurasimha  Badera  of  the  Chora 
Gangas  who  ruled  from  Kalini^a  Nagara  between  123S— 1264.  Konaraka 
was  abandoned  by  order  of  Mukunda  D.va  II  as  a  result  of  its  desecration 
by  Kfila  Pahar.  Possibly  he  was  a  Kanerkes  himself.  For  in  their  coins  we 
find  not  only  BasiUm  BasiUon  Kjtu-rkn,  but  they  are  full  bearded,  wear- 
ing long  tunic,  quilled  long  trousers,  boots  and  round  Scythian  caps  exactly 
like  Yut  chi  Kushans.  The  life  sizj  smiling  sun  god  wears  a  high  boot  as  in 
Kushan  Mathura  and  Kathiwar.  Otherwise  he  is  nude  except  an  ornamental 
girdle,  heavy  and  long  necklaces,  earrings  and  a  cap.  Planets  are 
worshipping  him.  Barren  women  used  to  come  to  him  for  fertilization  to 
get  the  blessings  of  motherhood.  It  is  the  image  of  Mithra-  Mihira  as  a 
lover  and  fertilizer.  The  courtyard  was  885  feet  from  east  to  west  and 
535  feet  from  north  to  south.  Three  gateways  gave  access  to  the  courtyard. 
Each  gate  was  faced  with  exquisite  chlorite  carving.  The  entrance  was 
reached  by  a  flight  of  steps,  guarded  by  lions  that  have  overcome  elephants 
who  in  their  falls  are  crushing  men  to  death  ;  war  horses  trampling  on 
warriors  ;  chariot  drivings  with  ornate  wheels,  by  spirited  horses.  At  present 
only  the  Mandap  and  the  base  of  the  tower  resembling  those  of  Puri, 
Bhuvanesvara  and  Lingaraja  remain,  but  sadly  damaged.  On  the  east  of 
the  porch  stands  a  fine  square  building  which  is  roofless.  Four  massive 
pillars  inside  and  with  many  pilasters  supported  the  roof  of  what  was 
probably  a  dancing  hall,  as  the  carviniis  on  the  walls  represent  dancing 
girls  and  musicians.  Iron  bars  about  \\'  in  length  and  3 — 4"  square 
placed  on  end  and  side  by  side  were  jointed  by  having  them  bound 
together  with  molten    iron  passed  round  the  four  sides  of  the  gardtr. 

The  voluptuous  high  relief  of  female  figurines  of  Rajar.ini  and  Konaraka 
Temples  like  the  representation  of  esthetically  and  physically  robust 
Yakshas  and  sensual  and  sexually  exuberant  type  of  Yakshis  is  aremarkable 
outstanding  contribution  of  nu'le  art  of  sculpture.  Mithuna  sculptures  of 
pairs  in  various  copulating  postures  at  rock-cut  Kailasa.  Puri,  Konaraka, 
Khajuraho,  Madurai,  Balsane  in  Khandesh,  Asvera  at  Sinnar  near  Nasik 
temples  are  fine  expositions  of  erotic  arts,  though  th<  y  are  regarded  as 
obscene  by  some  evil-minded  puritans  and  debasing  of  temple  dignity  by 
others.  Art  has  to  be  judged  by  its  naturalistic  expressions,  and  not  by  other 
standards.  Sensuality  and  sexual  acts  were  regarded  as  tietrayals  of  self- 
control  by  the  Buddhists,  viceous  as  sinful  by  the  Early  Christians.  But 
erotic  refinements  were  studied  and  cultivated  in  the  Greco-Roman  and 
and  Scytho-Hunnic,  and  Mahayana  Tantric  (as  in  the  Idol  houses  of 
Buddhist  Tantric  temples  in  Tibet)  civilizations,  and  were  esteemel  as  high 
accomphishments  by  the  nobility.  Jagannltha  Temple  of  Puri  was  built  by 
Ananga  Bhima  Deva  with  Bhospara  Pandita  as  the  architect  in  1197. 
It  took  12  years  to  finish  it.  The  porch  on  the  ground  plan  is  80  feet 
square  and  its  height  is  120  feet.  The  body  of  the  temple  rises  to  a  height 
of  35'  above  the  plinth  and  all  above  it  forms  the  spire.  The  temple 
was  attacked  several  times  by  Moslems  and  purified  repeatedly  by  while 
washings  which  have  seriously  spoilt  it  as  an  work  of  art.  Khajuraho 
temples  of  Hun  Chandels  number  3  J,  of  which  one-thirds  are  Jainas, 
Saivas  and  Vaishnavas  equally.  Jaina  Parsanath  temple  is  the  largest 
and  finest,  about  G2  feet  in  length,  almost  half  in  width,  built  between  950 
— 1150.  The  outside  walls  are  adorned  with  numerous  bands  of  moldings 
with  3'    horizontal  rows   of  sculptured   statues.     PI    56  In   Architectural 


142  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Antiquities  of  N.  Gujrat  of  Burgess  shows  the  sun  god  with  boots  reacing 
up  to  the  knees,  and  the  girdle  around  the  waist  with  one  end  hanging  down 
wards  ;  the  dress  is  entirely  Scythian.  282  copper  coins  in  Maurbhanj, 
172  Puri  Kushans,  112  Kushan  of  Kanishka  and  Huviska,  7  with  the 
figure  of  the  king  standing  by  the  side  of  an  altar  and  the  standing  figure 
of  a  sun  god  in  reverse.  The  legend  on  both  sides  is  Greek  33  coins  of 
the  same  king  and  Athro  on  the  reverse,  the  legend  is  in  Greek  script 
but    in   Iranian    language. 

The  pose,  beauty,  grace  and  sensual  abandon  of  the  nude  female 
figures  of  Khandiya  Deul  at  Khiching  (Maurbhanj),  Rijrani,  Konaraka 
and  Khajuraho  temples  have  very  few  e  ]Ua1s.  Khajuraho  temples 
— Parasvanatha,  Khandarya  Mahadeo  Visvanatha -have  curvilinear  deep 
vertical  ribbed  steeple,  ribbed  and  roundish  large  dome,  crowned  with  a 
water  jar  and  erotic  carvings  similar  to  those  of  Orissan  structures. 
Maniya  Devi,  consort  of  Mahadeo,  was  the  tutelary  deity  of  Chandels  ; 
Shivax  Chavdo  was  the  sculptor  of  Khajuraho.  Dravidian  Temples  (classical 
ones  atKanchi,  Tanjore,  Madurai  consist  of  5  pans  :  (I)  Vimana  =  sanctuary 
=  Gk  pronaos  =  Egypt,  sekos,  a  square  shrine  which  contains  the  image  of 
the  deity  with  a  pyramidal  roof,  one  or  two  stories  high  as  stepp'cid  pyramids 
of  Sakkara  and  Zoser  ;  (2)  attached  to  it  in  the  rear  is  the  Ratna-grilia  = 
treasure  house  =  Gk.  orithodomai  with  8  columns  =  Egypt,  rear  second 
hypostyle  with  4  columns,  where  the  jewelleries  and  offerings  to  the  god 
are  kept;  (3)  Mantapa  =  the  parch  =  the  hypostyle  hall  with  numerous 
columns  which  always  cover  and  precede  the  door  leading  to  the  shrine  (4) 
Gopuram  =  Egypt,  pylon  ;  Karnak  pylon  146'  high.  356'  long.  50'  wide  ; 
Luxor  front  pylon  76'  high,  200'  long,  and  the  portal  56' high  =  the 
pyramidal  tower  gate;  (5j  choultries  =  Egypt.  propylons  =  peristyle  hall 
with  roof-supporting  columns  round  the  wall  of  the  enclosed  temple  as 
temporary  residences  for  pilgrims.  In  Egyptian  temples  there  were  two 
obelisks,  56'— 107'  high  four  sided  usually  monolithic  pillars,  tapering  as  it 
rises,  ending  in  a  pyramid  ;  in  Dravidian  temples  the  tall  stambha  is 
ususdly  roundish.  In  Egyptian  temples  the  king's  statues,  usually  20' — 45' 
high  near  the  portal  of  the  pylon  ;  in  Dravidian  temples  either  the 
statues  of  the  king  and  his  queen  or  queens,  or  of  DvarapUas  In  Babylon 
(  =  Jat  Baveru  =  Baberish  of  Darius)  Ziggurat  (mountain  peak),  the  number 
of  stories  varies  with  reduction  of  size  at  the  top  =  jaruka  =  eduka. 

Rajasimha  Pallava  built  at  Kanchi  Kailasnatha  Temple  with  paramidal 
tower  and  flatroofed  Mandapa  surrounded  by  peristyle,  comrising  a  number 
of  rooms.  Chalukya  Vikramaditya  II  conquered  Pallava  capital  Kanchi  in 
739  ;  his  queeiv  built  Virupaksha  (slanting  eyed)  Lokesvara  Siva  at  Patta 
Kadal  after  the  model  of  Kailasan.atha  ;  but  the  mandapa  is  separated  from 
the  shrine  by  a  corridor  (pradakshina)  and  the  pillared  peristyle  Mandapa 
has  solid  walls  with  pierced  windows  ;  the  square  pyramidal  roof  consists 
of  storeys  of  considerable  height  Pallava  supremacy  came  to  an  end  when 
the  Cholas  in  alliance  with  the  Pandyas  inflicted  a  decisive  defeat  over 
the  Pallavas.  Raja  Raja  Chola  between  1203 — 1215  built  at  Tanjore 
the  Bhadresvara  temple,  and  his  son  Rajendra  Chola  built  a  huge  temple  at 
Gongai  Kondaparam.  The  pyramidal  tower  over  the  shrine  is  2 16  feet  high, 
mounted  on  top  by  a  gilded  Kalasan  (spiked  jar)  ;  the  Kalasan  is  on  a 
single  block  of  granite  2S|-  feet  square  and  estimated  to  weight  80  tons.. 
According  to  local  legend  the  granite  piece  was  drawn  up  on  an  inclined 
scaffolding   commencing   from   a  village  about  4  miles   away  which  to  this 


ARTS— VIJAYANAGAItA  143 

day  is  called  Sar;.pallem  (ScafTold  Moll  )w).  In  fr)nt  of  the  tower  is  a 
inonolilhic  bull  witliin  a  rectangular  pavilion  ;  the  bull  is  of  a  single 
piece  of  granite  in  a  recumbent  posture  16'  in  length  12'  in  height  and  T 
across,  likely  to  wtigh  25  tons.  To  the  north  of  the  temple  is  a  mono- 
lithic car.  having;  under  one  of  its  wheels  the  fii^ure  of  a  child,  a  cow  and 
dead  calf,  all  hewn  out  of  a  rock.  It  is  s.iid  that  crown  prince  of  Manu 
Nithi  Kandam  once  driving  in  his  chariot  crushed  a  calf  under  the 
wh>'el  of  his  chariot;  the  king  to  alone  lor  tii  is  sin  was  determined  to 
kill  his  own  son  ;  at  this  time  the  calf  revivttd.  Towards  the  end  of  13th 
century,  Pandyas  became  dominant  and  built  temples  at  Srirangam, 
Chidani')aran.  Kumha  Konam  and  Tiruvanmalai,  the  f^tpuram  over- 
shadowing the  shrine  vimanas  of  Cholas. 

When  the    Moslem     invaders     were     destroying     ono    kingdom    after 
another,    particularly   of  the  Hoysalas.  Harihtra  and    Bukka  of    Kanarese 
Hoysalas,  reorganiz-id  the  Hindu  forces,    thri-w    back    Moslem    incursions, 
and    foundtid    thtir    Capital    Vijayana}?ara    on    the    southern  bank    of 
Tungabhadr  1  about  1336.     Vijynynagara  kings  Krishna  Deva  Raya  '1509- 
152li  and  Achuta  Raya  (1^29-1542)  built  a  Mandapa  in  the  Ekimbaranath 
of   K^lnchi,    Auvaduiyar    Kovd.    Katyana    Mandapa   at  Velur  and  Vitoba 
temple    at    Vijayanagara.  Vitoba    was  half-finished  Avhen    the  4  Sultanates 
of  Dijccan  combined  and  defeated  Vijayanagar  army  at   Talikota  in    1565. 
The  victorious  hjrdes    pillaged    and    p'undered    the    industrious   wealthy 
city,  and  reduced  it  to  ruins  amid  scenes  of  the  massacre  of  its    men,    rape 
and  abduction  of  its  women.     The  victors  devoted  an  entire  year  methodi- 
cally    to     destroying     the     city     with    fire,    gun     powder,   crow    bar   so 
that  only  the  broken  skeleton  remains.     The  ruins  of  Vijayanagara,  a  vast 
open   air  musuem  o(  Hindu  monuments  of  Dravidian  style  of  architecture, 
cover  about  9  square  miles.  The  car  in  Vlto^a.  though  built  of  stone  blocks 
but     so      finely      fix-^d,      that      it     appears    to    be    monolithic.     Hazira 
Rama  temple  outer  wall  basreliefs  depict  scenes  of  Ramayana.     One  of  the 
basements    of   the    adjoining  palaces  has  (mc  reliefs  of  Uasharii  and    Holi 
festivals.     In  Mandapa  there  are  splendid  carvings  in   both    high   and    low 
reliefs  of  processions  of  soldiers,  horses,  camels  and  dancing  girls    Queen's 
Bath    is    a   rectangulagar     structure    with    a    reservoir   of   water     in    the 
centre.    The  king  s  throne  is  a  succesion  of  granite  platforms   rising   some 
30'  high,    its    walls    being    completely  covered  in  low  relief  with  carvings 
of   elephant,  camels,  dancing  girls  and  hunting  scenes.  Kadalaikal    Ganesa 
temple  with  its  wide  portico  of  carved  pillars  with  florid  capitals  and  plain 
temple  walls  is   almost   classical   in   appearance.     Pampapati    temple   has 
perhaps  the  largest  gopuram.    Candrasekhara  temple  is  alsD  noteworthy. 

After  the  fall  of  Vijayanagar.  the  Nayaks  established  an  independent 
kingdom  in  Madurai.  Tiru  Malla  Nayak  (1628  1659)  built  the  renowned 
Minakshi  Temple  in  Madurai,  the  most  magnificent  s.acred  monument 
of  human  patience,  labour  and  skill,  a  rectangular  edilice  830  feet  by  750 
feet,  surrounded  by  9  Gopurams,  one  of  which  is  152  feet  high.  It  consists  of 
two  parts  ;  on  the  south  the  shrine  of  Minakshi  '  fish  =  round  eyed  goddess\ 
and  on  the  north  the  shrine  of  her  consort  Sundaresvara  Siva  Minakshi 
was  wooed  by  many  suitors,  but  she  vowed  to  wed  only  the  lover  who 
could  prove  her  master  by  defeating  her  in  contests.  The  betrothed 
couple  are  happily  united  in  wedlock  during  the  great  chitrali  festival 
in  tne  Kalynii  Mantapam-The  Wedding  Hall,  In  front  of  the  Minikshi 
shrine   is   the   Fudu  =•  Vasanta   Mandapa,  flat-roofed   corridor  with  aisles, 


144  THE  LITEEARY  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDI  A 

exhibiting  all  the  characteristic  features  of  the  style  developed  under  the 
Nayaks,  namely,  the  development  of  the  pillar  caryatids  into  full 
round  sculpture,  representing  deties,  horses,  soldiers  ;  in  some  of  them 
Tiru  Malla  Nayak  and  his  queens  are  represented.  The  temple  of 
Rameshawaram  built  by  the  R^jas  of  Raranad  follows  Minakshi 
pattern  ;  its  corridor  extends  to  nearly  400  feet  in  length  ;  its  breadth 
varies  form  20-30  feet  ;  and  the  hight  is  about  30  feet  from  the  floor  to 
ceiling  ;  the  central  corridor  leading  from  the  sanctuary  is  adorned  on 
one  side  with  sculptures,  reprenting  the  Rajas  of  Ramnad,  and  the  other 
with  the  representatives  of  their  secretaries.  The  side  corridors  which  are 
free  from  figure  sculptures  open  into  transverse  gallaries,  full  of  carvings. 

On  the  top  of  famous  Gwalior  (Gopadri)  Hill,  there  is  rock-hewn 
three-storeyed  Catur-bhuja  Mandira.  A  shrine  has  been  scooped  out  of 
the  living  rock  on  which  is  carved  in  high  relief  4arrned  Vishnu.  The 
rock  surface  has  been  cut  to  give  the  appearance  of  structural  gateway.  A 
verandah  is  provided  on  4  columns.  Many  pillars  have  been  hewn  all 
round  to  give  the  rooms  in  all  the  storeys  light  and  ventilation,  ii> 
immitation  of  modern  brick  buildings.  The  top  rock  has  oeen  chiselled 
out  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  temple  Vim'^na,  terminating  in  a  dome. 
There  is  a  similar  rock-hewn  one  storeyed  Jaina  temple,  almost  like  a 
pavilion,  nearly  half  of  which  is  screened  by  a  wall,  covering  only  up  to- 
f  of  the  pillars,  v.ith  verandah,  side  stair,  cornice  and  roof  chiselled  out 
like  domes  and  pinnacles,  22  nude  Tirthinkaras  are  also  hewn  out  of 
the  rock  between  1441-1474.  One  standing  Digambara  is  57  feet  high  ; 
18  statues  between  20-30  feet  high.  Seated  Adin^tha  and  Neminatha 
30  feet  high  each.  At  the  rock-cut  temple  of  Abu  Simbel  in  Nubia  of 
Ramases  II,  a  sandstone  rock  has  been  relieved  by  4  giant  seated  figures- 
70  feet  high  as  guardians,  deeply  cut  out  of  rock  almost  vertical. 

At  Paharpur,  in  north-east  Bengal,  a  copper  plate  dated  Gupta 
Era  179  =  478,  has  been  found,  recording  the  purchase  and  donation  by 
a  Brahmana  and  .his  wife  to  Paharpur  Vihara  for  the  maintenance  of  a 
Jaina  Vihara  of  Vada  Gohali  which  is  presided  by  a  Nigantha  Guha 
Nandi  of  Panca  stupa  Nikaya  of  Baranasi.  Some  seals  had  been  issued 
by  the  community  of  the  monks.  Dharmapala's  name  is  observed  in 
some  of  the  copper  coins.  It  is  likely  that  he  built  the  Paharpur  Mahayana 
monastery,  a  quadrangle  920  feet  square  externally  with  177  rooms, 
each  about  13  feet  long,  opening  to  a  great  court  through  verandah? 
— with  a  brick  work  pyramid  still  78  feet  high,  providing  accomadation 
for  more  than  1000  monks,  Goddess  Yamuna  standing  on  the  back  of 
a  tortoise  shows  fine  stone  relief  carving.  In  sandstone  relief  have  beer> 
well  moddelled    a   monkey,   a   standing   loving   pair   with   ardent    faces. 

The  walls  of  the  both  the  lower  Pahnrpur  stages  are  enlivened  by- 
sculptured  panels  which  form  the  special  feature  ot  the  monastery. 
The  panels  are  of  two  series — those  of  stone  which  are  set  irregularly  in 
the  lowest  stage  ;  and  those  of  terracotta  of  which  there  are  twa 
courses  or  friezees  ;  sixty  of  the  former  and  200  of  the  later  stilt 
remain  in  situ.  Mahasthana  near  Bagura,  ancient  Pundra  Nagara,  a 
provincial  capital  of  Mauryas  of  3rd  Century  B.  C,  also  of  the  Guptas 
and  later  of  the  Palas,  has  eleven  feet  thick  defensive  brick  walls, 
a  frame  of  the  fort  5000  feet  long,  4000  feet  broad  and  rising  even 
to  day  to  the  height  of  15  ft  above  the  bank  of  the  Karotaya.  Outside  of  it 
nearby  there  is  a  large  Vishnu  temple  with  decorated  bricks  and  sculptured 


ARTS  — JAINA  TEMPLES  145 

terracottas  of  the  Gupta  period.  Gokul  Medlia  is  another  cellular 
construction,  that  is,  by  employment  of  rectangular  compartments,  packed 
solidly  with  earth,  as  a  high  base  of  a  tall  massive  pavilion,  crowned  by  a 
shrine,  in  order  to  have  a  commanding  position  in  flooded  plains  during 
the  monsoon.  It  also  occurs  in  two  temples  of  Ahichchalra.  Somapura 
Vihara  was  built  by  Dharmapfila  about  SOO  A.D.  in  I'undra  Nagara.  ancient 
Kotivarsa,  on  the  border  of  Dinajpur  and  Rajshahi  Dists.  Mainamati 
Lalmain,  A  miles  sw  of  Comilla,  has  yielded  a  copper  plate  inscription, 
recording  a  grant  of  land  in  the  town  of  Pattikeri  in  1200  AD  for  building 
a  Buddhist  monastery. 

At  Pakilara,  a  high  relief  of  Surya  image  of  Candras  on  black 
chlorite  slab  3'lO"xl'll"  has  been  found  (now  at  Rammala 
Library,  Comilla).  Sarya  with  Mongoloid  face,  slanting  eyes  and  thick 
lips  stands  erect,  wearing  an  embroidered  trouser  inserted  into  high  boots, 
holding  a  lotus  in  each  hand  while  Vidhyadara  couples  hovering_  above 
hold  justapDsed  a  parasol  right  in  the  cetre  of  his  head  ;  eleven  Adityas 
out  of  12,  and  Ganesa  flanking  him.  Danda  with  his  wife  is  in  on  the 
right  side  of  him  ;  and  Pingala  with  his  wife  on  the  left,  all  wearing 
pajamas  with  ribs  on  the  front  and  Chinese  shoes,  holding  flowers  in 
their  right  hands,  kept  in  place  by  a  sash  round  the  waist  and  wearing 
blouses  and  necklaces.  Chaya,  the  consort  of  Snrya,  is  on  the  front 
of  Surya's  top  boots,  Aruna  in  the  central  bottom  driving  a  rotunda 
of  seven  horses.  Usha  and  Sandya  are  symmetrically  poised  below  at 
the  extreme  ends  as  bow  women  to  drive  away  darkness.  Strikingly  a 
well-modelled  terracotta  plaque  shows  a  nude  woman  seated  with  her 
right  hand  on  the  calf  of  her  right  flexed  leg  and  left  hand's  elbow  resting 
on  the  left  raised  knee,  touching  the  locks  of  her  hair  with  her  left  hand. 

Dilvada  Jain  Temples  on  Mt  Abu  are  4  in  number,  contained 
within  their  own  enclosed  quadrangles.  They  are  wholly  of  creamy 
white  marble,  quarried  in  the  plains  below  and  carried  up  miles  of 
rugged  hillsides  for  their  construction.  The  wealth  of  minutely  carved 
decoration  of  pillars,  door  jambs,  panels  and  niches  in  thin  and  delicate 
translucent  shell  like  marble  works  surpasses  description.  The  sculptural 
treatments  on  the  large  domical  ceilngs  of  Vimala  Sha's  and  Tejpala 
temples  are  marvellous.  An  inscription  of  Vimala  Sha's  tells  that  it 
was  built  in  1032,  and  the  pillars  in  the  hall  resemble  closely  those 
of  Ambaranatha  which  is  dated  1060,  and  of  the  sun  temple  at  Mudhera 
in  N.  Gujarat.  Tejapala  temple  was  built  a  couple  of  centuries  later. 
Salrungjaya's  twin  hill  plateus  (about  2000  feet  high),  covered  by 
countless  Jaina  temples  with  brilliant  domes  and  spires,  grouped  in 
fortified  enclosures,  look  like  hanging  enchanting  gardens  in  the  mid  air  ; 
though  mach  damaged  by  Moslem  iconoclasm,  these  twin  temple  towns 
with  their  polished  marble  floors,  ornamental  carvings  of  pillars  and 
door  ways,  white  nude  Thirthankaras,  monks  and  nuns  singing  mystic 
melodious  hymns  in  air  loaded  with  burning  incense  and  balmy 
flowery  fragrance,  women  moving  in  scarlet  and  gold,  make  them  fairy 
lands  of  beauty  and  charm. 

Recent  explorations  in  the  Punjab  and  west  up  to  Hastinlpura 
have  revealed  the  presence  of  a  grey  ware  painted  with  characteristic 
designs  in  black,  roughly  dated  100-600  B.C.,  identified  with  Sakas 
(Aryans  !),  underlying  the  northern  black  polished  well  baked  pottery  of 
Maurya  Guptas,  dated  at  Taxila   500-300   B.    C. 

10 


COINS 

Pasu  =  Lat.  pecus  =  Gk,  po'ss)u  =  Goth.  faihu  meaning  cattle,  was 
the  medium  of  exchange  and  wealth  'Lat.  pscunia)  of  the  Indo- 
Aryans.  Cowrie  shells  brought  from  Maldives  were  used  for  small 
exchanges  on  the  S2a  coast;  and  counting  them  by  Gonda  (4)  4x5 
gand a  =  fingers  Kuri  (20)  ;  4  Kuri3''  =  80  are  of  Austric  origin.  In  Rv 
6.  47.  2  we  find  Hiranya  pindas-gold  balls.  G)ld,  silver,  copper 
ingots  of  certain  weights  were  called  Niska  =  Semitic  miskal 
(to  be  weighed).  These  were  stringed  with  thread  and  used  as  a  necklace 
of  certain  value.  Rudra  wearng  a  Visvarupa  niska  (Rv.  2.  33)  =  ingots 
of  various  shapes.  In  Kalpasutra  Trisala,  mother  of  Mahavira,  saw  in  her 
dream  Siri  wearing  urathadinara-malaya,  a  stringed  garland  of  Dinaras 
(Rom.  Dinarius  introducd  by  the  Kushans  in  1st  Century  AD)  on  her 
bosom.  Even  seed  garlands  were  used  of  certain  value.  Then  fiat  pieces 
of  thin  silver  or  copper  hammered  sheets  were  cut  or  chopped  of  a 
certain  weight  by  silver  smiths  or  trade  guilds  (srenis)  and  punched  or 
marked  with  their  symbols  as  well  as  of  traders  (sreshtis)  as  a  certification 
of  their  purity,  as  in  Lydia.  Siamese  Tikal  of  224  grains  =  Sera. 
Shekel  ;  Phoenician  and  Hebrev  Shekel  was  \  of  it,  having  56 
grains,  almost  equivalent  to  Kahapanas  of  56-d7  grains.  Ancient 
Iranian  Siglos=>6  Danike  =  Daniks  =  Tanka  =  Taka.  In  Rajatarangini  we 
find  that  queen  of  Ananta  wanting  money  sold  a  jewelled  Linga  for 
laks  of  Takas,  Six  (saya)  Tak^s  =  satak.  Gold  coins  of  Darius  were 
called  Dariks.  The  punch  marks  were  on  one  side  or  both  sides  of 
these  coins  as  they  passed  hands  of  silvermiths,  Srenis  and  Sresthis 
who  vouchafed  for  their  metal  ic  purity  and  contents.  The  devices  of 
punch-mark  are  varied,  mostly  of  Mahenjodaro  seals,  and  outnumber 
310.  Mauryas  used  mostly  punch-marked  coins.  The  casting  of  coins, 
particularly  of  copper  by  pouring  molten  metal  into  a  cavity  by 
joining  two  molds  together  was  also  known  by  them  When  the 
metal  was  hot  a  square  die  with  the  symbol  of  Bodhi-tree  was  cast 
on  it  to  make  deep  incuse  in  time  of  Asoka  and  Dasaratha, 

Silver  coin  of  Sophytes  in  Seleucid  style  ;  head  in  close  fitting 
helmet  bound  with  a  wreath  ;  wing  on  the  cheek  piece  ;  face  almost 
Hellenic  ;  cock  to  right  above  caduceus  ;  in  Gk.  Sophutou  =  Svobhuti, 
an  allied  king  Salt  Range  region.  Eleven  years  after  Alexander's 
death,  his  general  Seleucos  founded  the  Seleucid  kingdon.  Between 
250 — 248  B.  C.  two  of  his  chief  provinces  revolted  and  became  indepen- 
dent, Bactria  under  Euthydemus  and  Parthia  under  Hellenized  Arsakes. 
Son  of  Euthydemus,  Demetrius  190  —  150  B  C.)  as  the  decadent 
Maurya  Guptas  were  being  replaced  by  more  virile  Sungas  and 
consequentely  there  was  administrative  chaos  and  popular  unrest  in 
N.  India,  penetrated  into  India,  made  Sngala  'Sialkot)  his  Capital 
and  some  Yavana  soldiers  besiezed  Pataliputra,  occupying  Mathura, 
Saketa  (Ayodhya)  and  Madhyaraika  (Chitor),  and  advanced  up  to 
Orissan  coast.  Obv.  Bust  of  Demetrius  in  elephant  scalp,  wearing 
.^  diadem.     Rev.   Standing  Heracles  crowning  himself     Monogram     A   Y 


COINS— INDO  GREEK  147 

Inscription  Basileos  Demetrioy  soteras.  Finding  Demetrius  (Damma- 
mitta.  was  engaged  in  India,  Eukratides  (17S — 155)  and  Antiochus, 
Seleucied  scions.  throuj;h  Hindukush,  seized  Bacteria  and  occupied 
Gandiiara.  Leaving  behind  his  brothers,  sons,  daughter  and  his  general 
Menander  in  the  Punjxb  and  Western  India,  Demetrius  left  India 
tor  Bactria  to  win  back  his  ancient  kingdom.  Now  there  were  two 
rival  Yavana  dynasties  in  India.  Demetrius  brothers — Antimachus, 
Apollodotus  ;  his  sons— Euthyd-;mas  II,  Demetrius  II,  Pantaleon. 
Agathokles  ;  his  daughter— Agathokleia  ;  her  son — Strato  ;  his  general 
Menander  who  later  married  Agathokleia,  the  daughter  of  Demetrius 
to  legitimize  his  claims  on  the  throne.  Eukratides  included  Helioches, 
Philoxenos,  Artimidoras,  Epander,  Amyantos,  Fenkolaos,  Lysias, 
Antialkidas.  The  former  befriended  the  Buddhists  for  support,  and 
the  latter  the  Hindus,  particularly  the  Sungas.  Antialkidas  sent  his 
ambassador  Heliodorus  who  professed  to  be  a  Vasudeva  worshipper, 
and  erected  a  Garuda  pillar  at  Besnagar  to  make  Sungas  to  fight  the 
rival  group  who  were  occupying  North  Western  Punjab.  Another  small 
rulling  Greek  dynasty  in  Broach  area  consisted  of  Apollodotus, 
Ap:)llophanes,  Dionysis,  Zoiles,  Hippostratos.  In  all  about  36  kings, 
and  one  queen  or  regent  mother.  Demetrius  silver  coin  ;  bust  of 
the  king,  wearing  elephant's  scalp  G  k.  Basileos  Demetrius,  young  nude 
Herakles  facing.  Euthydemos,  son  of  Demetrios  ;  silver,  bust  of  the 
young  pretty  king  with  a  fillet  holding  his  wavy  hair  ;  Basileos  Euthy- 
demoi  ;  young  nude  Herakles  facing  Pantaleon,  son  and  successor  of 
Demetrius  ;  in  incuse  square  ;  a  lion  with  G.k.  Basileos  Pantaleontos  ; 
in  Br.  Rajane  Ptalsvasha  ;  Lakshmi — a  female  slim  figure  with  bare  breasts, 
long  pendants  from  her  ears,  clad  in  trousers,  holds  in  her  hand  a  lotus 
bud.  Menander  silver  helmeted  bust  ;  Gk.  Basileos  soteros  Menandron  ; 
Athena  holding  in  her  left  hand  aegis  and  with  right  hand  throwing 
thunderbolt  ;  Kharosti  Maharajasa  tratarosa  Menadrasa.  Bronze  square 
ox  head  ;  Bronze  square  ;  wheel  (Dharma  cakra)  and  palm,  Agathokliea 
with  her  son  Strato.  Bronza  square  :  Bust  of  helmeted  queen, 
a  very  pretty  face.  Basilisses  theotropou  Agathokleiz  ;  Herakles 
seated,  holding  a  club,  Khar.  Maharajasa  tradatasa  Dhrmikasa  Stratesa 
Agathokleia.  G.k.  Basileus  Agathokleous.  Br.  Rajine  Akathukleyasa. 
a  seated  female  figure  with  lon^  pendants  in  the  ears,  clad  in  trousers  ; 
maneless  lion  in  bronze  incuse  square. 

Antimachus  ;  Basileos  Nike  phorou  Antimaku  .•  Nike  (Greek  Goddess 
of  Victory)  holding  a  wreath  ;  Khar.  Maharajasa  jayadharasa  Antima- 
kasa,  wearing  Causia,  diaden,  chlamys  on  horse  back.  Strato  ;  silver. 
Bust  with  helmet.  Basileos  soteros  dikaiou  stratonos.  Another  coin 
with  the  bust  of  the  king  with  fillet  on  the  head.  Maharajasa  tradalisa 
dharmikasa  stratase,  Athena  holding  in  her  left  hand  aegis  and  with 
right  hand  hurling  thunderbolt.  Apollodotus  MBh,  Bhag.adatta  ),  ruler 
of  Barygaza  (Broach)  and  Gandhira,  brother  of  Demetrius,  silver. 
Basileos  Apollodotus  soteros  ;  elephant.  Mahaaajasa  Ap.aladatasa 
tradalasa  ;  humped  bull,  2.  Bronze  square  ;  Nude  standing  Appollo, 
holding  an  arrow  in  his  right  hand.  Tripod  on  stand.  3.  Basileos 
megalou  soteros  kai  philopatoros  Apollodotus,  Bust  with  a  fillet  on  the 
head.  Athena  holding  in  her  left  hand  aegis  and  with  right  hand  hurling 
thunderbolt.  Apollophanes  ;  silver,  Basileos  soteros  Apollophanou  ; 
helmeted     bust ;     Athena    hurling    thunderbolt.      Dionysius ;      bronze ; 


148  THE  LITERARI  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Basileos  soteros  Dionyseoi,  Appolo  clad  in  chlamys  and  boots  holds  inr 
his  hands  an  arrow,  and  quiver  on  his  back ;  Maharajasa  tradasa 
Dianisyasa  Athena,  Zolius,  silver  Basileos  diakaiou  Zoilou  ;  bust  ; 
Maharajasa  Dharmikasa  Jhoilasa,  Herakles  facing,  crowned  with 
ivy.  Eukratides  :  bronze  square ;  Basileos  megaloi  Enkratidos  ; 
Bust  of  the  king  helmeted  ;  Maharajasa  •  Evukratidasa  .•  Dioscuri 
charging,  holding  a  long  lance  ;  another  ;  Nike  bearing  wreath  and  palm 
Heliokles  and  Laodice  ;  silver.  Basileos  dikaiou  Haliokles,  Bust  of 
the  king,  hair  bound  by  a  ribbon.  Maharajasa  Dharmikaka  Heliya 
kreyasa.  Zeus  holds  winged  thunderbolt  and  long  scepter  ;  (2)  an  elephant, 
Archebines,  silver.  Basileos  dikaiou  Nikephoru  Arkebisou,  Nike  holding 
a  wreath  and  a  palm  ;  an  owl.  Philoxenus,  silver  round  ;  Basileos 
aniketou  philoxenou  ;  bust  ;  Maharajasa  apadhitasa  Philasinasa  ; 
king  helmeted  on  horse  back.  Nicias,  Bronze  ;  Basileos  soteros  Nikiou  ;. 
head  ;  Maharajasa  tradatasa  Nikiasa,  wearing  chlamys  on  horse  back. 
Epander,  bronze.  Basileos  Nikephcu  Epanderou  ;  Maharajasa 
iayadharasa  Epadrasa— humped  bull.  Artimidorus,  bronze  square. 
Basileos  anike  (  lou  Ar)  temidorou.  Artemis  holds  in  her  left  hand  bow 
and  with  right  hand  draws  arrows  from  quiver  on  her  back  ;. 
Maharajasa  apadihatasa  Artemidorasa — humped  bull.  Lysias,  silver. 
Basileos  aniketou  Lysiou.  Bust  ;  Herakles,  elephatnt,  Diomedes  ; 
bronze,  Basileos  soteros  Diomedou  Maharajasa  tradatasa  Diyamedasa  ; 
humped  bull.  Antialcidas,  silver.  Basileos  Nikephorus.  Antialkidou. 
Zeus  on  throne  bearing  Nike  on  outstretched  right  hand  ;  elephant  with- 
a  wreath  in  his  trunk.  Khar  Maharajasa  jayadharasa  Antialikitasa. 
Hippostratus :  Gk.  Basileos  megalou  soteros  Hippostratu  ;  diademed  head 
of  the  king  in  the  centre.  Khar  Maharajasa  tratarasa  mahatasa  jayamtasa 
Hipustratasa  ;  the  king  on  horseback.  Theophilus  .•  Basileos  dikaiou  Theo- 
philu  ;  the  bust  of  the  king.  Maharajisa  dhramikasa.  Theophius  ;  Herakles 
crowning  himself  holding  in  his  hand  a  club.  In  168  B.  C.  Macedonia  fell 
to  Rome.  Between  163-141  B.  C.  Babylonia,  Iran  and  Afghanistan  passed 
out  of  Seleucid  hands  into  those  of  Parthians.  In  146  B.C.  Greece  itself 
became  a  Roman  province.  Cicero  wrote  to  Afficus  :  Do  not  get 
your  slaves  from  Britain,  because  they  are  so  stupid  and  so  utterly 
incapable  of  being  taught,  they  are  not  fit  to  from  a  part  of  an  Athenian 
hausehold."    In  113  B.C.   Greco-Bacterian  kingdom  fell   to   the   Yuechis. 

Yuechis  (Yaksha)  consisted  of  Assi  (Asvaka  =  03  =  Ossettes,  after  whom 
Asia  has  been  named,  Sarmatian),  Passi  =  Parsii  =  Gk.  Passioi,  Tochari 
(Tukhara  =  Thakura),  Turki  Hiung-nu  (Huns,  comprising  of  Ephthalites  = 
Vetalas,  Talajanghas  and  Avantis),  Kushans,  Manda  and  Marundas. 
Asii,  Pasii  (PasianI,  Asiani  =  of  Asis  and  Pasis),  Tochari  and  Sakarauli 
Kuei-Shuang  of  the  Yuechis  were  attacked  by  Hung-nu,  between  201- 
165  B.C.  and  their  king  was  slain,  and  his  skull  was  turned  into  a  drinking 
bowl.  Kuei-Shuang  (Kushan)  united  the  other  four  tribes,  Arjuna  in  his 
exploits  in  northern  territorries  is  described  to  have  conquered  Parama 
Kamboja  and  Risikas  (MBh  2.26  36)  after  having  taken  Bahlika  (MBh 
2.26.22)  =  Balkh  and  Uraga  (MBh  2.  26.  19)  =  Urga.  It  is  known 
that  Great  Yuechis  =  Parama  Risikas  were  in  possession  of  the  area. 
In  10  B.C.  Saka  invasion  of  Greek  Gandhara  (Afghanistan)  and  N.  W. 
India  began  under  Parthian  general  Surens.  There  was  a  similar 
Saka  outburst  in  7th  century  B.  C.  Sakas  =  Scyths  were  mixed  with  many 
peoples  ;  they  mainly  consisted  of  Sacara-uli  (Sagaras),  Sogdi  tigra-khauda 


CCINg— PARTHIAN  149 

=  Sakti's.  wearing  pointed  helmets,  Kambojas  -  ,  K^imoli  Haum  varka 
Magi  (Maga  or  Magadha  wearing  hemp  fibres),  Pchlavi  (Pallavas 
=  Parthavas),  Sudra  (P.ili  Sudda  —  ChudcsV  Avira  (Avars),  Licchavi 
Niu-chi),  Uijra  (Ugrii  =  Ugyrians),  Tunga  (Tutigs)-.  Kiratas  fKcraits), 
Kalkis  (Khalki^  Asita  lOssete),  Dahala  (Dahae),  Thfikura  (Tocharis), 
Ku3eya  =  Kushans,  Kuci  =  Kiu-tse  ;  for  this  reason,  the  Rijpats  who  were 
mixed  Sakas  and  Hunas  were  called  Agnikulodvava.  (originating  from  Yenki 
=  Agni  =•  Agnian  race),  Nagas  (Nogai  Tatars ;  N  iyar,  Newor),  Kark  )ta  N"iga 
Mallas  Uvarkitans).  Jits  (Massa  Getae  =  Getti),  Guptas  =  Ar.  Quoft  -  Copts 
who  call  themselves  Guptos,  V;\katakas  =  Voliaks.  Udumbara  =  Udmurt,  a 
branch  of  the  Votiaks,  Kunindas  =  allied  Udmurts,  Yau  iheya  (Yutias  ■=■  Jits), 
Andhra3  =  Andkhul  Kushan  Saka  Rawoka=  Kanerke  =  Kanarka.  Hjliokles, 
the  last  Greek  king  of  Bactria,  driven  ont  of  that  country  about  135  B.C. 
by  the  Sakas,  ruled  however  from  Kapisa  'Kabul)  where  his  descendents 
are  found  as  feudatories  of  the  Pallavas,  and  when  in  40  B.  C.  the  last 
of  them  Heamaios  was  driven  out  in  40  B  C.  Sakis  of  Bactria.  pressed 
by  the  Yue  chi  Kushans  in  126  B.  C  invaded  India  by  Herat  and  Seistan 
(Sakastfina)  and  occupied  Sind  which  thus  became  known  as  ^akadvipa. 
Moving  up  the  Indus  valley,  Parthian  Maues  =  Moga  about  51  B  C.  occupi- 
ed Pushkalavati  (  the  city  of  Pushkala  Ugras).  Pahlava  princes  Vonones, 
Spalaphores,  Spilirises  ruUed  in  Gandhara  and  Seistan  and  overran 
Kabul.  Saka  Pahlavas  and  Kushans,  though  they  replaced  the  Greco- 
Romans,  they  adopted  their  techniques,  employed  their  technicians 
and  even  used  Greek  scripts.  Spalyris  with  Spalgadames  ;  in  square 
frame,  the  prince  is  on  horse  back  ;  Gk.  Spulurios  dikaiou  adelphou 
tou  basileos.  Rev-Naked  Herakles  with  a  club  sitting  on  a  rock  ;  Khar. 
Spalahoraputrasa  dhramiasa  Sp^lagadumasa.  Arsaces  Dikaios  Gk. 
Basileantos  basileon  dikaiou.  Arsakon.  The  king  on  horse  back.  Khar. 
Mah  irajas  Rajarajisa  mah  Uasa  Ashshakasa  tradatasa.  Maues  =  Maga  ; 
Basileos  Mauou,  Caduceus  ;  head  of  an  elephant  with  raised  hood. 
Basileus  basileon  soter  Megas  ;  king  on  horse  back  •.  diademed  bust  of 
the  king,  holding  a  lance  in  his  right  hand.  Mau  =  Maga=  Mauka  whose 
descendants  were  known  as  Maukhari  was  succeeded  by  Azes  (Aja). 
He  assumed  the  title  of  Vikramiditya  by  defeating  the  Greeks  and 
established  the  Vikrama  era  in  57  B.C,  by  defeating  Appollodotus 
of  Guzerat  and  Saka  hordes  of  East  Punja'j,  About  40  B  C.  Euthydemoid 
Hippostratos  was  completely  defeated.  Some  of  Azj's  coins  are  re- 
struck  on  those  of  Apollodotus  and  Hippostratos.  Gk.  Basileos  Basileon 
megalon  Azou  surrounded  by  a  humped  bull  in  the  centre.  Khar. 
Maharajasa,  rajatirajasa  mahnasa  Ayasa,  surrounded  by  a  rutting  lion 
with  erect  penis  in  the  centre.  The  successor  of  Azes  was  his  son 
Azillises  .•  Gk.  Basileos  basileon  megalou  Azilisou  ;  king  on  horse  back, 
holding  an  elephant  goad  in  his  right  hand  as  a  symbol  of  authority, 
Discouroi  standing  side  by  side  armed  with  spears ;  Maharajasa 
rajatirajasa  mahatasa  Ayilishasa.  Pahlava  Gandopharnes  (O  Pers  Vinda 
pharna,  winner  of  majestic  story)  ruled  Taxila  area  between  30-15 
A.D,  for  not  only  some  his  coins  are  in  pure  Parthian  style,  and  bear 
the  names  of  military  governors,  the  Scytho-Iranian  names  of  Aspararna, 
son  of  Indra  Varma,  and  his  nephew  Sasas  which  are  also  observed  on 
some  of  the  coins  of  Azes.  Gondopharnes  :  Gk.  Basileos  basileon 
megalou  Undopherou.  The  king  on  horseback,  right  hand  extended. 
Khar.     Maharaja     rajatiraja     tratara   devavrada  Gandupharnasa.      Zeus 


150  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT   INDIA. 

Standing,  right  hand  extended.  Abdagases  Basileuntos  basileonu 
Abdagasou  ;  king  on  horse  back.  Kh,  Guduphara  bhrata-putrasa 
Avadagasasa  .•  Zeus  standing  with  long  secptre.  His  successor  Orthagnes  = 
Verethragna,  basileon  megas  Orthagnes  ;  b'jst  of  the  king  Kh. 
Maharajasa  rajatirajasa  Gudupharasa  gudana  ;  winged  Nike  with 
wreath.  Zeionises  ,  Gk.  Satrapeu  Zeinison  ;  king  with  bow  on  horse 
back.  Kh.  Manigulasa  Chatrapasa  putrasa  criatrapasa  Jihuniasa. 
Karahaster  :  Copper  square  ;  Gk.  Kh.  Karahaster  satrapei  ArtSnoh  ;  king 
on  horse  back  with  spear.  Kh.  Chatrapa  Kharaostasa  Artasa  putrasa. 
Basileos  the  title  used  in  the  coronation  of  the  Sassanian  court.  Pakorores  : 
Basileus  basileon  megas  Pakores  ;  bust  of  the  king.  Kh.  Maharajasa 
rajatirajasa  mahatasa  Pakurasa  ;  winged  Nike  with  wreath.  Other 
Pahlava  chiefs  were  Sanaberet,  Zeionises,  son  of  Manigul  ;  Kharahostes, 
son  of  Arta.  Arsakes.  Pahlavas  kept  the  Greek  rulers  as  sub-kings, 
for  they  admired  the   Greeks  and  were  known  as  Philohellenes. 

Asvaka  coins  have  been  found  in  Taxila  region,  Sarmatian  Assoi  = 
Assakenoi  of  the  Swat  Valley  whose  chief  town  Massage  fell  to  Alexan- 
der's army  after  fierce  resistance  Three-arched  Chaitya  Symbol  ;  a 
robed  human  figure  with  an  upraised  arm  in  an  attitude  of  prayer,  with 
Br.  legend  Vat  Ashaka  ( =  Asvakanam  Vatah  =  Coin)  in  single-die  of 
3rd  century  B.  C,  Malava  coins  from  250  B.  C.  to  250  A.  D.  are 
found  about  Ajmer,  Tonlk  and  Chitor,  tree  or  lion  in  railing  in  centre 
with  Prakrit  legends —Malalva  Jaya,  Malavana  Jaya,  Malavana  Jayo, 
Maha  Ganasa  Jaya — Victory  to  Maharaja  Ganapati,  having  close 
resemblence  in  design  to  the  Maharaja  Ganapati  of  Nigas.  Rev.  Vase  in 
dotted  line  or  peacock  facing  with  expanded  tail,  covering  the  whole 
surface  of  the  coin.  They  are  the  Mallas  of  Kusinagar,  Malloi  of 
Alexander's  historians,  who  left  Bhatinda  leaving  Malwai  dialect,  and 
as  Karkota  Naga  Mallas  founded  in  2nd  century  B.  C.  the  city  of 
Karkota  Nagara  in  Jayapur  State.  There  are  coins  with  the  legends 
Ma  (haraja)  Gajasa  (of  Maha  Gaja)  i  Ma  Paya,  Ma  Sapa  (  =  Sarpa\  Ma 
Paka,  Ma  Gojava  (Maharaja  Gajava).  After  their  settlements  Ujjaini 
area  was  known  as  Malava.  Sibi  coins  have  a  Trisula  in  the  middle 
with  the  Br.  legend — Majhimik.lya  Sibi  Janapadasa  (of  the  country 
of  the  Sibis  of  Madhyamika).  Yaudheyas  (Yautians  =  Johiyas  of 
Bhawalpura  ;  perhaps  Jodhpur  founded  by  them.  Yudhisthira  =  Jats)  are 
mentioned  by  Panini  and  in  Rudradaman's  (l50  A.  D.)  inscription  as 
great  fighters.  Their  copper  coins  of  109  B.  C.  -  250  A.  D,  are  found 
all  over  in  Bhawalpur,  Bikaner,  Punjab  and  Kangra,  resembling 
Audumbara  coins.  The  earliest  type  is  a  Bull  standing  right  within  a 
railing  with  the  Br.  legend  — Yaudheyana,  and  Bhupa-Dhanusha  (lord  of 
the  desert).  Six-headed  god— Karthikeya  standing  on  a  lotus  facing 
with  left  hand  hip  and  right  hand  raised  and  a  barbed  spear  on  the  left 
with  the  legend — Bhagavatah  Svamino  Brahmanya  devasya,  in  others 
Kuffidirasya,  the  coin  of  almighty  lord  Su-Brahmanya  =  Kartikeya,  the 
war  god  of  the  Yaudheyas.  A  single  headed  god  with  the  legend 
Brahmanyadevasya  drama  (coin).  A  warrior  standing  grasping,  a  spear 
in  right  hand,  with  left  hand  on  hip,  a  peacock  at  his  left  foot  with 
the  Br.  legend  Yaudheya-Ganasya  Jaya — Victory  to  the  Yaudheya  tribes. 
Arjunayanas  are  mentioned  in  the  Ganapatha  of  Panini  (4,  1,  112) 
and  Samudragupta  (380  A.  D.)  Allahabad  inscription  as  a  frontier 
tribe.     Their    copper    coins    are    chiefly    found   in   the   region  between 


COINS— TAUDHETA  161 

Bharatpur    and      Alwar     States,     reseniblini^    the     coins     of     Satraps, 
Yaudheyas  and  Audumbaras.     The  coins  of  Arjunfiyanas  of   2nd   century 
B.C.     show    a    bull    before    a    lini^a  ;  humped    bull  standint;  to  left  ;  a 
standing;    figure    with    eight    hand  raised  as  in  Northern  Satrap  coins  witli 
tree    Br.    legend    in    the    margin    as    Arjinfiyana    (of  Arjuna  lineage)  or 
Arjunayanana    Jaya    with   a   symbol    of  flag   or  spear,     Vimaka  coins 
bear  close  resemblance  to  those  Audumbaras  and  Vrishnis.     The  elephant 
with   upraised    trunk    moving    to   right    towards    the  trident  battle-axe  of 
Siva    and    Br.    Rajna    Vemakisa  Rudravarmasa  ;  Rev.  Humped  Bull  with 
a    Cakra  =  discus   symbol,    Kh.  Ranavem  Vuma— Vidayata  =  coin    of  king 
Rudravarman,  the  Vuma — the  conqueror.     Vrishni    coins  have    a   pillar 
with  half-lion    as  half   elephant    surrounded    by  a  railing.  Br.  Vrishnir  (a) 
Jajnnfi    Ganasya    Tratarasya.    Rev.     The   same    legend  in  Kharosthi  with 
a  Cakra — discus— symbol.     Udumbara   coin    has    the  standing  figure  of 
Visvamitra    with    right    hand    raised    and    the    left  resting  on  the  waist 
with    the    Kh.    Mahidevasa    Rano      Dharaghoshasa  Odumbarisa,    across 
freld — Vispimitra.     Rev.    The   same   legend     in    Br  and    Kh   letters   of 
1st   century    B.    C.     The  Udumbara   (fiig   tree)    on   the   right   within    a 
railing  and    the   trident    battle   axe  on    the  leaf  (the  coin   of  his  exalted 
majesty     Dharaghosa     of     the     Odumbaras — Odombaerae     of     Ptolemy. 
Kuei-Shung  (Kushans)  under  the  leadership  of  Kujula  Kadphises  (21-50AD) 
passed   south    of  Hidukosh    from  the    O.^us    basin    and   overwhelmed  the 
Pallavas  who  were    then  in  Kao-fin  (  Kabul  )  valley.     At  first  the  Kushans 
kept   the    Pahlavas   and   the   Greeks  as  their   sub-kings,    but   latter  when 
Kushans    formed   one   of  the     biggest   empires,  extending   from   Central 
Asia  to  India,  Greeks  were  only  kept  in  their  technical  seivice.   Telephos  : 
Copper   squ.are.      Basileos     euergetou   Telephosu  :    Zeus    on    the    throne 
with  long   scepter.     Maharajasa    Kalanakramasa  Teliphasa.    Male   figure 
with  cloak  and  cap.   Peukolaos  copper  square,  Basileos  dikoiu    kai    soteros 
Peukolou  ;  Artemis  standing  to  front  drawing  arrow  from    quiver   at   back 
with  right   hand    Maharajasa  dhramikasa  tradarasa   Peukulasa  .•    crowned 
city   goddess  with   a   flower    in   right   hand.     Hermaios    and    Kalliope  .• 
conjugate  busts  of  king   and    queen  to  right,   surrounded  by  Gk.  Basileos 
soteros    Hermaiou   kai    Kalliopes       King    prancing   horse  :     Maharajasa 
tratarasa   Heramiyasa     Kaliyapaya.     Hermaios     and     Kajula    Kadphises 
(25  B.C.— 35  A.D.)  :   Bust  of  Hermaios  ;  Gk.  Bisileos  sterossu  Hermaiou  ; 
nude  Herakles     standing  with  a  club.     Kujula  Kasasa    Kushana    yavugasa 
dhramathidasa.     Kajula     Kadphises  ;      imitation    of     Roman     Dinarius. 
In  corrupt   Greek,    Khorann   2aoou   Koz^la  Kadaphes  ;  diademed    head. 
Kh.    Kaphasasa   sachadhramathitasa     Khusan'isa    yuasa  ;    king   seated  on 
throne.     Vima   Kadphies    (35  62i  deposed  Pahlava    Pakores   from  Taxila 
area   and   swept   the    last   remnants    of   Gre-^k    authority,  and   the    later 
Greek    princes    were   driven   out   of   the    Punjab  ;     Artemidorus    fled    to 
Kashmir  ;     Dionysios,    Zoilos  and  Strato  II    to    Kangra.     Vima,    seated 
cross-legged       wearing       baggy       Turkisli       trousers,     crested      helmet 
on  the  head,    and  a  thunderoolt    in    his  right  hand.  Gk.     Basileos  Ooemo 
Kadphises  ;Isa(Oesho)  standing  in  front  of  a  bull  with  a  trident  in  his  right 
hand  ;  Kh  Maharajas  rajidhirajasa  sarvaloga   Isvarasa    mahisvarasa   Vima 
Kathphisas    tradara,     Kanishka  (78-103)  standing    wearing  trousers,  heavy 
felt  boots,  casseck  long  cloak  falhng  beneath   the    knees,    conical    helmet, 
having  full  beard,  large  prominent  nose  and  roundish  face  ;  in  Greek  scripts 
Shao  Kanestiki.     Iranian    wind    god  in  Gk.  Oado^  Vata  =  Rom.    Venti. 


152  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

2.     In   Gk,   Shaonanoshao  Kasheki  Koshano.     Standing  Buddha  wearing 
a   robe,   with   the   legend  in  Gk.  Boddo.     Vasiska  (102 — lOG),  Huvishka 
(111 — 138)   riding   on  an  elephant,  halding  in  his  hands  sceptre  and  goad 
in  Gk  scripts,  Shaonanoshao  Oeshki  Koshano.  A  goddess  wearing  trousers, 
boots,    bodice,   cap,    holding   in   her  hands  a    boquet  of  flowers  with  the 
legend    in      Gk    Ardokhsho.      Vasudeva,    standing    wearing   a   suit    of 
chain-mail,  conical    helmet    with   prominent  nose,  roundish  face,  holding 
a    spear    in    his    right    hand    with   the  legend  in  Gk.  Shaonanoshaoshao 
Bazodeo  Koshano  ;  five   headed    Panclnana   in   front   of   a  humped  bull 
with  a  noose  in  his  right    hand,    trident    in    his    left  hand  with  the  legend 
Oesho  (Isa).     Kuninda  in  the  hills  of  upper  Satlej     Br.  Rajnah  Kunindasa 
Amoghbhutaasa   (of   unfailing  prosperity)  Maharajasa  ;  Laksmi    standing 
on   lotus    with   uplifted   hand  ;   Kh.    Rana  Kunidsa  Amogabhutisa  Maha- 
rajasa.    Satrap    Rajuvala   of   Mathura.     Head    of  Rajuvala   with  corrupt 
Greek    legend.     Athena    with    aegis     and      thunderbolt    with   the    Kh. 
legend    Aparihata    Cakrosa    (invincible    v;ith     the     discus)    Chatrapasa 
Rajuvala  (70  B  C.).     His   son  Sodasa  (65—57  B.  C.)  as  mentioned  in  the 
copper    and      lead    coins    with     the    legends —Mahakshatrapasa    putasa 
Kshatrapa    Sodasasa  ;   Rajuvula    putas    Kshatrapa    Sodasa.     Parasol    was 
used   by  Sargon   of   Akkad    as    a  symbol  of  Sovereignty  ;   it  was  adopted 
by    Achemenian    Daris    II  ;  and    the     Sakas      imiiated    it     and    called 
themselves  Satrapas  =  Khatrapas  =  the  wielder  of  5a/'/*a  =  umbrella.     Nada 
Diaka,     chief  queen   of   Rajuvala,    daughter   of  Ayasi    Kamiua    (Kam- 
bojia)    was   the    mother   of   Yuvaraj  Kharaosti  through  a  former  husband 
Arta.     Castana    (124— 150*  of  Malawa  :  Bust   of  the  Satrapa  in  Gk.     Br. 
Rajno   Mahakshatrapasa   Ghsa(moli)ka   putrasa  Castana.     Kh.  Castanasa. 
Jayadaman,  son  of  Castana.     Humped  bull,  facing  trident  and  battle   axe. 
Br.    Rajno    Kshatrayasa    Svami   Jayadamasa    and   a  Gk.  legend  Rudra- 
daman,  son  of  Jayadaman.     Bust   of  the   king   with  Gk  legend,  Caitya  of 
3    arches.     Br     Rajno    Ksahtrapasa    Jayadama    putrasa    Rajno    Maha- 
kshatrapa    Rudradamasa.      Ksharats  ;  Lion   with    upraised    paw — wheel. 
Kh.   Chaharadasa  Cha(trapasa)    Bhumikasa    Br.  Kshahari    (tasa)  Kshastra 
pasa    Bhumakasa    (90—70   B  C.)     Nahapana's  (70-65  B.(^)    head  with 
corrupt  Greek.      Thunderbolt    and   arrow.    Br.   Rano    Chaharatasa,     Kh. 
Nahapanasa.  His  sonin-law  Saka  Rishavadata  succeeded  him.  Damasena's 
head    wearing   a   round  cap   on  the  head  ;  eyes,  nose,  face  sharp.     Caitya 
with   crescent,    Br-    Rano    Mahakshatrapasa    Rudrasihasa    putrasa    Rano 
Mahakshatrapasa      Damasenasa.       Andhra     Yajna      Satakarmi.        Head 
of  the   king    with    heavy    earrings.     Br.    Rano   Gotamiputasa  Siri    Yana 
Satakanisa  chaitya  ;  southern  Br.   Gotamputasha   Hiru  (Siri),  Yana  Hata- 
kanisha.     Srikrishna     Satakarni.     Elephant     with    trunk    upraised.     Br. 
Siri  Kanha  Satakanisa.  Abhira  Isvaradatta  (236  A.D.)  :     Bust  of  the    king 
with    traces    of   Greek     scripts.     Caitya   surmounted    by    a  crescent.  Br. 
Rajno    Maha    kshatrapasa    Isvaradattasa    varse   prathame.     Apahrahmsa, 
regarded    by    Patanjali    150  B.C.   as    a   corrupt  form  of  Sanskrit,  was  the 
recognized    language    of    Gujrat  before    Valabhis    509  A.  D.,    based  on 
the    Ahhira     dialect — Desabhasha    Abhirokti  — Bharata's    Natya    Sistra 
of  200   A  D.,    17,  24,  5.     The  downfall  of  the  Parthians  by  the  Sasanians 
occured  about  223  A.D.    Though  the  Sasanians  were  in  deadly   grip  with 
the  Roman  Empire  for  a  couple    of  centuries  for  supremacy  in  Armenia, 
Saka-Pallava,     Andhra    (226)  — Kushana,    including    Kidaras    known    as 
Little  Yue  chi   pawer  was    affected   in  India,  for  they  were  allied  peoples. 


COINS— GUPTA  .153 

find  the  weakness  of  one  resulted  in  the  disability  of  others.  Bust  of  Kidara 
king  ;  one  witli  shaven  f.ice,  another  with  short  moustache  wears 
earrings  and  necklace  with  the  legend  in  Br.  Kidara  Kushana  Sha, 
Rev,  fire-altar  with  triple  base,  surmounted  by  flames  in  which  the  bust 
of  Hormizd  appears  in  the  right.  Guptas  rose  in  power.  Little  is 
known  of  their  early  history.  One  Ghatot  Kocha's  son  Candra  Gupta 
marrying  Licchavi  Kum'ira  Devi  (Kaniaroi  princess)  wrested  power  from 
the  decadent  Andhras  in  Bihar  and  rapidly  extended  Gupta  suzerainty. 
Ghatot  is  a  Kirata  name,  Koch  is  a  Mongoloid  tribe  by  whose  settlement 
Kochvihar  has  been  named.  Kerait  was  a  Scythianised  powerfull  Mongo- 
loid tribe  who  settled  in  N.  E.  Bengal  as  well  as  Nepal,  Bhutan  known 
as  Kiratas  =  Kirritis.  Licchavi  (Niu-chi)  also  was  a  Saka  clan,  ruling 
in  Bihar,  Mithilfi  and  Nepal.  Copts  who  call  themselves  Guptos  (Ar 
Gubti),  brought  and  settled  in  N\V  India  by  Darius,  coming  under 
the  Achemenian  (Hakaniansia  =  Saka-manusa)  influence,  became  a 
Saka  clan  and  mixed  with  the  Licchavis  and  Kirntas  Guptp  and 
Kushan  scripts,  dresses,  coins  are  similar  ;  and  both  of  them  adopted 
and  patronized  Sanskrit.  Candra  Gupta  (320 — 3S3)  wearing  trousers, 
boots  and  long  coat  is  offering  a  ring  to  Kumara  Devi,  also  wearing 
trousers  as  a  Saka  custom  of  Licchavis  by  whose  helps  he  aggrandized 
himself  with  the  legend  in  Brahmi  Candra  Gupta  on  right,  Sri  Kumara 
Devi  on  left  ;  on  the  reverse  of  the  gold  coin  Licchavya  and  a  goddess 
seated  on  a  lion  ;  their  son  Samudra  Gupta  ruled  as  Licchavi  Dauhitra. 
On  another  gold  coin  there  is  a  sacrificial  horse  before  an  altar 
(Asvamedha)  with  the  legend  Rajidhirajah  prithivi  vijitya  divam  jagatra 
hritaviji  medah.  Samudra  Gupta  (330  -375)  was  a  great  conqueror. 
He  waged  war  against  Pallava  Vishnu  Gupta  ;  entire  NC  India 
acknowledged  his  suzerainty  ;  E  India  also  paid  him  some  nominal 
tributes.  On  his  gold  coin  Samudra  Gupta  wears  chain-armored 
trousers  and  cuirass  and  stands  before  a  Garuda-headed  standard  beneath 
his  arm,  Samudra  ;  around.  Samara  satavitatavijayo  jitaripur  ajito 
divam  jayati  ;  Rev.  Laksmi  seated  on  a  couch,  her  feet  on  lotus,  with 
the  legend.  Parakramah.  Candra  Gupta  II  ^3S5 — 413*,  second  son  of 
Samudra  Gupta  and  Abhira  Datta  Devi  who  in  the  Allahabad 
stone  pillar  inscription  gloats  over  his  victory  over  Daivaputra  Shahi 
Shahanshai  Sak  Marundaih,  after  rescuing  the  Rastrakutx  Dhurva  De\i. 
wife  of  his  step  brother  Rama  Gupta  '375 — 385)  from  the  custody  of 
Kushana  Saka  Marundas  of  Kangra,  incorporating  the  entire  western 
coast  to  Gupta  Empire,  and  marrying  Dhurvi,  assumed  the  title  of 
Vikramaditya.  In  a  gold  coin  Candra  Gupta  rides  astride  a  caprisoned 
galloping  horse,  wearing  trousers  and  boots  in  the  Greco  Parthian  fashion, 
with  the  legend  aroud,  Paramabhagavata  Maharajadhir.^ja  Sri  Candra 
Guptah  Rev.  LaksmT  seated  on  a  wicker  stool,  her  feet  resting  on  a 
lotus  with  a  fillet  in  her  right  hand,  with  the  legend  Ajita-vikramah. 
Their  son  Kumara  Gupta  (413  —  455)  valiantly  fought  to  stem  the 
onrushing  tide  of  Puspamittra  white  Huns  who  overthrowing  the 
Sasanids  fell  in  Indian  NW  frontier  in  increasing  numbers.  Sasanids, 
exhausted  by  long  and  sanguinary  wars  with  the  Romans  for  more  than 
a  century,  collapsed  before  the  Hun  outbursts.  ?E  Europe  was  overran 
by  Atilla's  hordes.  Before  them  Gupta  Empire  tottered  and  crumbled 
into  pieces.  Candra  Gupta  II  allied  himself  with  Vakatakas  by  giving 
•his   daughter    Prabhavati   in  marriage  to   their   king    Rudrasena  II.     He 


154  THE  LITEEART  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

removed  his  Capital    from   Pataliputra   to  Kausambi,  to  Ujjain,  Ayodhya. 
He  debased   his   gold    coins   to    meet  costly  war  needs.     Kumara  Gupta 
in   his   debased   golden    coin    standing    to  right,  wearing  trousers,  kept  in 
place  by  a  leather  fillet,    armoured  coat,    holding   a   bow  in  his  left  hand, 
shoots   a   lion   which    falls    backward,    with   the    legend,    Kumaro  Gupta 
yudhi     simha-vikramah.     Rev.     Seated    Ambika    has   a   crouching     lion 
before   her  right   foot,   with   the    legend    Simha  mahendra.     In    another 
coin,  in  the    bust,    he   has   a   pleasant   contemplative  face  and  fine  nose  ; 
he  wears  a  round   cap  on  his  head,  his  long  hairs  falling  on  his  shoulders  ; 
he  wears  ring  earrings  ;  some  Gk.  letters.     Rv.  Peacock  dancing  ;  around, 
Parama    Bhagavata     Maharajadhiraja     Sri    Kumara    Gupta     Mahendra 
dityah.     Pushyamitras    established   themselves    in   Kathiwar   as    Valabhi 
Mitrakas  ;  the  other  is    Pushya-blutis  of  Thaneswar.  Whether  the  Gurjara 
(Khazar)  kingdoms  of  Broach   and   Bhinmal  are  of  Pushya-Mitra  incursion 
or    of    later    time    are    not    known.       Another    Hun     incursion   under 
the   leadership   of  Toramana   fell   upon  the  later-day  Guptas  of  Malawa. 
conquered  it,  and   Toramana    assumed  the  title  Maharaiidhiraja.  Valabhi 
Maitrakas  and  others  of  NVV  India  acknowledged  his  suzerainiy.  Toramana 
gold   coin   head   is   represented   with    not    an   unpleasant  face.     Rev.  a 
peacock   with   spreading   plumage,    with   the    legend     in    Br.  Toramana. 
Toramana   was    succeeded    by    his     son     Mihiragula     (502 — 540'     wha 
established  his  capital  at  Sakala  (Sialkot).     Baladitya  Gupta  of  Magadha, 
Kidara    Yasovarman    of    Malwa    and    Maukharies    (of  Mauka=  Moga  = 
Maues)    of   Kanauj   joined    together,  and    Mihiragula     (of     Mihirkula_= 
descent)    in   528    was    defeated;  but   he    continued   to  rule   in  Kashmir. 
As   their   homelands    were    occupied    by   Aschin    Huns,    a  branch  of  the 
Turks,  and    Sasanids,     thus    reinforcements    being     non-available     from 
outside,    the   remaining   Sakas,  Kushanas,    Takharas,    Hunas    formed   the 
Rajput  Agnikulas,    for   majority   of  them  in  Kuch  are  known  collectively 
as  Yen-ki  =  Agnis  or  Agnians,  in  Ugrian  Kusanlili=  Pur-Kauseyas.  Mihira- 
gula  coin   has    his    bust   head  ;  his    face   coarse    and    cruel,     nose    very 
prominent,    mousiasche    and    beard    are    partly    clipped  -,  there   is  round 
cap  on  his  head  ;  in  his  front  there  is  bull  standard  and  behind  a  trident 
Legend,  Jayatu  Mihirakula.     Rev.  fire  altar.     Yasavarman  in  his    debased 
coin  is  a  standing   figure,    but    not    sharply    marked  ;  under    his  left  arm, 
the   legend,    is  — Kida  fra)  ;  Rev.    seated    goddess    with   the   legend,   Sri 
Yasavarma.  Sasanka   Narendra   Gupta   of  Gaura  made  alliance  with  Deva 
Gupta   of    Malawa,     and     jointly     attacked    Maukari     Grahavarman   of 
Ujjaini.    Maukhari    king    was   killed    in   the   encounter.     But   his    queen 
contort    R'tjya  Sri,   daughter  of  a  Gupta  princess,  sister  of  Harsavardhana 
Siladitya,    of  Pushyabhutis   of    Thaneswar,    his    own    cousin   and    whom 
he     was     entitled     to    marry,     declined    to    entertain     the   victor   with 
her   physical   charms,    though    he   was  in    love    with    her,  and    she    was- 
imprisoned   to  make  her  yield.     Harsavardhan    (612 — 647)    with    a   large 
army    attacked   the  rear   of   the   allied    forces.     Sasanka  releasing    Rajya 
Sri   retreated.     Harsavardhana    occupied    the    whole    Maukhari    territory 
and  made   Kanauj   his   Capital.     In  643  Harsa  directed   his  forces  against 
Sasanka   in   Ganjam.     Sasanka     was    defeated.      Valabhi    Maitrakas    of 
Saurastra,    being   allied   in    race,  co-operated.     Harsa  wanted   to  conquer 
south   by   rttacking  Chalukya    Pulakesin  II.     But   he   was   forced  to  make 
Narmada,   the   boundary  of   their    two    dominions,     Harsa   was  a  patron 
of  learning   and    author   of   some     dramas.     In   Sasanka's    coin,   Siva   is 


COINS — DANUJA-MARDANA  155 

standing  with  an  uplifted  hand,  moon  above  in  right  behind  a  humped 
bull,  with  the  legend  Sri  S',  below,  Jaya.  Rev.  a  nude  Lnkshmi 
sitting  cross-legged  on  lotus,  elephants  above  on  either  side,  sprinkling 
water  from  their  uplifted  hoods  on  her  head,  on  right  Sri  Sss'inka.  In 
Harsa's  coin  there  is  his  bust  head,  with  fine  sharp  face,  thin  prominent 
nose,  refined  appearance  with  the  legend  Sa  and  a  date  ;  Rev.  Peacock 
with  out  spread  wings  and  tail  with  dots  above  ,  around  the  legend, 
vigitSvanir  Avanti  pati  Sri  Sri  Siladityo  divan  Jayati.  Didda,  a 
daughter  of  the  Sahi  (Kushan)  chief  of  Lohara  was  married  to  a  prince 
of  Pisaca  (Pasieci  =  Pashai)  Yasaskara  Dynasty  of  Kashmir.  After  her 
husband's  death,  she  acted  as  the  regent  of  her  son  Abhimanyu,  and 
after  Abhimanyu's  death  as  queen  herself.  She  used  to  select  her 
ministers  of  government  from  her  lovers  ;  though  she  was  capricious^ 
in  her  love  affairs,  she  was  a  very  able  administrator.  She  looked 
after  the  the  affairs  of  the  state  personally.  Her  administration, 
brought  law,  order  and  prosperity,  unknown  in  Kashmir  for  a  long  time. 
She  was  succeeded,  however,  by  her  nephew,  brothers's  son,  Sangrama, 
of  the  Sahi  Lohara  dynasty,  thus  bringing  union  of  both  the  states  in 
1003  A.  D.  In  Didda  Rrmi's  coin  \7e  find  her  son  Abhimunyu. 
standing,  Rev.  seated  goddess ;  of  the  left  Sri,  and  right,  Didda. 
In  15th  century  Bengali  script — Danuja-mardana  =  Raji.  Ganes  =  Kansa 
Narriyana  has  Sri  Sri  Danuj  i  mardana  Devasya  in  one  side  and  Sri  Sri 
Candi-Carana  parayanasya.  The  Indo  Greek  kings  often  called 
themselves  Basileos  (Sk.  Rajan  )  soteros  (Skt.  trata  =  protector),  Dikaiou 
(the  just).  Whom  did  they  protect  and  from  whom  ?  Between  whom 
were  they  just  and  impartial  ?  There  were  very  few  Greek  Polis  in 
India.  Only  soma  Indians  who  lived  in  mixed  Greek  settlements 
prided  to  call  themselves  Yavanas.  Very  few  Greeks  indeed  assumed 
Indian  names,  adopted  Indian  manners  or  became  real  converts  to 
Brahminism  or  Buddhism.  It  is  likely  therefore  that  they  exploited 
the  differences  that  existed  betwesn  Brahminism  and  Buddhism  for 
their  imperial  aggrandisements. 

Nagarahara  =  Jellalabad  ;  Agnidesa  =  Karasar  ;  Lampnka  =  Lamghan  ; 
Sogdina  =  Sudhuka  =  Sulika  =  Sulikas  who  translated  Nilakath.i  Dharini, 
Dhirgha  Nakha  Sukha  Sutra,  Besa  Santara  Jataka,  Sulika  Desa  =  Samar- 
khand;  Wakhan  =  Vokkana  ;  Khosghar  =Kasa  Griha  ;  they  followed 
Sarvastivada  Buddhism  7th,  century  A  D.  In  Tocharian  language  Maitreya 
Samhita,  a  Buddhist  drama,  has  been  translated.  Khotan  =  Godana, 
Chaurasi  siddhas  lived  in  caves  of  Chinese  Pamir.  They  proclaimed 
Tantricism.  In  Sulika  language  a  Hindu  astronomical  book  has  been 
translated.  In  it,  Rabi  =  Mihir  ;  Soma  =  Mah  ;  Mangala  =  Vaharam  ; 
Tir^Budha:  Brihaspati  =  Nahid  ;  Sukra  =  Ormuzd  ;  Sani  =  Kebana 
after  Iranian  days  Tocharians  settled  in  region  between  Balkh  and  the 
Oxus  =»  Vakshu  =  Tukhara  =  Tagara,  A  Tocharian  scholar  Sukanta  tran- 
slated the  Buddhist  Cakra  Sambara  in  Tibetan.  According  to  Huen- 
Tsang.  Khasas  in  Khotan  had  long  head  and  blue  eyes. 

In  7th  century  B.  C.  bronze  cowries  were  issued  in  China,  Huang-Ti 
221-210  B  C.  superceded  all  other  currencies  by  the  issueof  round  coins 
of  ^  oz.  (Pan-liang)  which  were  continued  by  the  Han  dynasty.  But  as 
their  values  fluctuated,  Changan  200  220  A.D.  killed  his  white  stag  and 
made  a  kind  of  treasury  note  out  of  its  skin  which  was  valued  at  400,0DO 
copper  coins.     Thus  skin  currency  was   followed  by  the  currency  of  paper. 


INDIAN  KINGDOMS  IN  KHOTAN 
AND  INDONESIA 

It  is  said  that  Kusfcana  (  Kunala  according  to  Tibetan  tradi- 
tions), a  son  of  Devanampriya,  Maurya  Asoka,  founded 
Kusfcana  Dynasty  in  Turkestan.  Kusfcana's  son  Ye-u  la  =»  Chin, 
Yu  lin  Ye-u-la  was  succeeded  by  Vigifca  Sambhava  who  founded 
the  Vigita  (Vijaya)  dynasty.  Vijita  Dharma's  son  was  Vijita 
Simha  •,  his  son  Vijita  Kirfci.  A  Kharosthi  inscription  refers  to 
Khotanese  (Khotamna)  king  Maharaja  Biajafciraja  Deva  Vigita 
Simha.  About  ^0  coins  bearing  Chinese  legends  on  the  obverse 
and  Prakrita  in  Kharosthi  character  on  the  reverse  have  been 
found  there.  Later  Khotan  and  the  adjoining  area  Kuci,  Bacfcria, 
Iran  and  Afghanistan  came  under  the  domination  of  Kushans 
by  whose  influence  the  whole  territory  adopted  Mahayana 
Buddhism  and  Greco-Romanic  modified  Buddhist  arts.  Uigurs 
and  Tochariaus,  known  also  as  Yek-ki-Agnis=»Tukharas  of 
Kucha  (Agni  Dcsa)  became  zealous  converts.  Kuchean  or 
Agnian  was  a  slanting  Gupta  script.  Some  Sankskrit  texts 
lost  in  India  have  been  found  in  Kucha.  One  is  Udanavarga, 
a  work  of  Hravastivadins  ;  a  palm  leaf  manuscript  in  Turfan 
of  the  concluding  chapters  of  Asvagosha's  Sariputra  Prakarana, 
Sanskrit  texts  from  Vinaya  Samgita  Sutra  and  Atanaliy  Sufcra 
of  the  Hinayanas  ;  Upali  Sufcra  and  Suka  Sutra  from  Madhyama- 
gama  ;  Pravarna  Sutra,  Candropama  Sutra  and  Sakti  Sutra 
from  Somyuktagama  :  Vajra  Chedika  from  Prajna  Paramifca  j 
Mahapari  Nirvana  Sutra,  Sadharma  Pundarika,  Ananta  Mukha 
Dharani.  Sata  Panca  Salika  Sufcra,  Pratimoksha.  Azes,  one  of 
the  Scitho-Parthian  hordes,  either  for  commercial  purposes  or 
for  military  adventures,  settled  in  Java,  coming  from  the  SW 
coast  of  India.  For  the  Javanese  era  starts  from  68  A,  D.  of 
Aji  (Azes)  Saka  and  lafcer  the  Saka  Kushan  era  of  78  A.  D. 
In  a  Chinese  historical  work  ifc  is  menfcioned  that  an  Indian 
colony  arrived  in  Java  during  the  reign  of  Han  emperor 
Kwang    Wu-Ti  (  25-57  A,D.) 

Vishnu  (of  the  Ligor  Inscription  and  Sri  Vishnu  varmmasya  of 
the  Perak  seal  ),  the  chief  of  Sailendra  dynasty,  bears  the  title  of  the 
Illustrious  Great  King.  The  king,  lord  of  Srivijaya,  the  very  best  of  all 
kings  of  the  earth,  has  erected  in  "775  the  triad  of  brick  houses,  the 
abode  of  Padmap'^ni.  the  destroyer  of  Mara  (  Sakyamuni  )  and  Vajrapani 
(Vishnu-vakyo  Sailendra  vamsa  prabhu  nigadatah  Sri  Maharaja  nama. 
Sri  vijayesvara  Bhupati  resa  gunanghah  kshitala  sarva  samanta  nri 
pottama  ekah  sthapita  aistika  geha  varatraya  metal,  Kajakara  Marani 
vajri-nivasam.    Ligor). 


INDIAN  KINGDOMS  IN  INDONESIA  167' 

Another  Javanese  Kingdom  is  mentioned  at  A8tina(Ha3- 
tinapura  )  and  ruled  by  Pulasara  (  Parasiira  ),  who  Wtis  succeeded 
by  his  son  Abiasa  (Vyasa)  who  in  his  turn  was  succeeded  by 
Pandu  Deva  Natha.  Pliny  (  6.  76  )  mentions  Gens  Pandae, 
and  Solinus  (  62.  16  )  Pandaea  Gens.  This  pandae  gens  origi- 
nated most  likely  with  the  Sarmatean  Wends,  who  was  known 
as  Pandion  of  the  Greeks.  Scythianized  through  N.  India  they 
settled  as  Pandus  of  Madurai.  About  444  B.  C.  Paudu 
Vasudeva  became  the  ruler  of  Ceylon  and  called  it  Lanka 
(  Lith.  Lanka,  lenke- wooded  valley);  in  377  B.C.  Pandu 
Abhaya  was  the  king  according  to  Mahawansa.  In  20  B.  C. 
the  Tamil  king  Pandion  sent  an  embassy  to  Augustus.  In 
132  A.D  Devavarman  of  Java  sent  an  embassy  to  China. 
Pandian  titles  were  Minankita  Sailendra,  Sailendra  vamsa 
Prabhava,  Migodatah  3ri Maharaja  name.  In  an  inscription  of 
Kalasa  in  Java  dated  771  A.  D,  on  a  temple  of  Tara — Candi 
Kalasa  — Maharaja  Panam  Karan  -  Samagra — who  built  it  after 
the  patron  duty  of  his  wife  Tara — daughter  if  a  Pala  king  of 
Bengal,  styles  himself  as  Sailendra  vamsa  Tilaka.  Sailendra  had 
also  the  title  of  Makara  dvaja  as  the  Pandiyans  called  them- 
selves Mina-dvaja  •  that  is  they  had  on  their  standards  either 
a  crocodile  or  a  fish.  Congal  inscription  of  732  A.D.  in  Keda, 
Central  Java,  refers  to  the  original  home  of  the  conquerors  as 
Kuujara  kunja  desa,  S.  I  Kunjara  in  Varaha  Mihir's  Brihat 
Samhita,  and  mentions  that  a  radiant  Lingam  was  brought  from 
Kunjara  kunja.  The  cult  of  Agasbya  was  well  developed  in 
Indonesia  as   amonst   the    Pandyas. 

Sailendras  wrested  Ligar  from    sri   Vijayas   about   77  5    and 

The  Chinise  invented  the  brest-trap  horse  harness  in  200  B.C. 
Emperor  Han  Wun-Ti  in  133  B.C.  consulted  alchemist  Li  Shad  Chun 
who  occupied  himself  in  converting  cinnahar  powder  and  other  drugs 
into  yellow  gold  ;  tiger -mercury  ;  grey  dragon  =  sulphur  ;  red  bird  =  fire. 
Tsai  Line  in  106  AD  in  Yuan-Hsing's  reign  made  paper  from  tree  bark, 
hemp  and  rags.  During  400-506  AD  the  Chinese  made  black  ink  from 
lamp  black  and  red  ink  from  mercury  sulphide.  In  7th  century  gun 
powder  was  made  by  the  Chinese  for  fire  works,  and  by  the  end  of  tenth 
century,  gun-powder  was  well-established  as  a  propulsive  agent  in  war 
weapons.  From  China  to  Europe  spread  the  following  inventions  : 
the  single  wheel  barrow,  sailing  carriages,  rotary  camp-mill-mobile 
quern,  the  square  pallet  of  chain  pump,  rotary  fans,  deep  drilling, 
eflficient  harness,  the  breast  strap  (  4th.,  century  B.  C.  in  China;, 
ceramics,  the  collar  (  700  AD  in  China),  horizontal  water  wheels, 
metaurgical  blowing  engines  (  31  AD  in  China),  tilt  hammers,  water- 
driven  trip  hammers,  canal  lock  gates,  stern  port  rudder,  piston  bellows, 
edge-runner  mills  (gun  powder  mill  300  AD),  iron  chain,  suspension 
bridge,  vertical-warp  loom,  draw  loom,  flyer  in  silk  winding,  revolving 
book  case,  kite,  heliocopter  top  (4th  century  A.D.).  In  a  2nd  century 
Book  on  Trees  and  Plants,  entomological  control  of  plant  pests  is  described. 


158  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  CF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

established  their  authority  in  Java  (  Java  dvipa  ).  Thus  during 
the  last  quarter  of  eighth  century,  Sumatra  (  Suvarna 
dvipa  ),  Malaya  Peninsula  (Malaya)  and  Java  came  under 
the  Sailendras.  Sailendras  introduced  debased  Tantric  system 
of  Mahayana  Buddhism,  and  built  Candi  Kalasa  and  Barabadur, 
Sailendra  king  of  Suvarna  dvipa  had  also  commercial  inter- 
course with  Tamralipta  (  Tamluk  )  of  Bengal  and  had  in  7^2 
Kumara  Ghosha,  a  Gauda  Tantric  Guru.  In  the  middle  of 
8th  century  Sailendra  Bala-Putra  Deva,  son  of  Samara  Gravira 
built  a  Vihara  at  Nalanda,  and  at  his  request  the  Pala  ruler 
Deva  Pala  donated  five  villages  for  its  maintenance. 

Of  great   navigator  Buddhagupta,   a   resident   of   Rakta  mrittika, 

by  all  means  in  all,  in  all  respects,  let  (  they  )  be  successful  in  their 
voyage  (  MahaNavika  Buddha  Guptasya  Raktamrittikavas  (avyasya), 
prakarena  sarvavasmin  sarvatha  savva  siddhayata  santu  )  on  a  stone 
slav  with  the  figure  of  a  stupa  in  the  centre  whose  basement  is  decorated 
with  three  pilasters,  supporting  a  semicircular  dome  ;  the  dome  carries 
a  superstructure  (  harmika  )  from  the  centre  of  which  rises  a  staff  {yasti) 
with  a  series  of  seven  superposed  parosols  {chatravali);, 

•  Canopus,  identified  with  Agastya,  a  pilot  of  Menelaus,  was  buried  and 
worshipped  in  the  shape  of  a  jar  with  small  feet,  thin  neck,  swollen  body, 
round  back,  so  called  Canopic  Jar. 

Saila  and  Gang^  rulers  of  Kalinga  were  also  known  as  Sailendra. 

Babylonian  star  observations  reached  China  by  525  B.  C.  Iron 
reached  China  likewise  and  is  mentioned  by  513  B.  C.  Horse  archers 
reached  China  before  300  B.  C,  and  Cavalry  soon  replaced  Chariotry  in 
warfare  all  over  Eurasia  ;  in  China  200  B.  C.  The  development  of 
Silk  Road  between  200  B.  C— 300  A.  D.  About  300  A.  D.  unrest  on  the 
steppes  seriously  interfered  with  the  Silk  Road.  From  400  A.  D.  commu- 
nication between  China  and  the  West  was  through  India.  The  use  of 
gold  and  the  Alchemy  based  on  Babylonian  chemistry  developed  in  China 
in  4th  century  B.  C.  Ox-drawn  plough  and  the  coffin  as  in  Egypt  was 
adopted  in  China.  The  invention  of  paper  and  saismograph  developed 
in  China  100-300  A.  D.  The  Chinese  developed  gun  powder  about 
300.    Indo-Scythians  introduced  glass-making  in  China  in  fifth  century. 

18  inches  high  bronze^  image  of  Buddha  in  pure  Gupta  style  has  been 
found  near  Ipohj  now  in  Perak  Museum.  This  indicates  Hinayana 
Buddhism  was  prevalent  in  the  area  in  fifth  century  A.  D.  But  a  two 
armed  seated  bronze  Avalokitesvara  has  been  found  near  Ipoh  ;  a  four- 
armed  bronze  figure  near  Ipoh  ;  a  six  armed  bronze  Avalkitesvara  has  been 
dredged  in  Perak  which  indicate  that  Hinayana  Buddhism  was  replaced 
by  Mahayana  Buddhism  in  8-9th  centures  I.  L.  N.  July  23,  1938, 

Srivijayas  originated  about  683,  and  subsequently  extended  its  power 
over  all  South  Sumatra,  and  in  8th  century  sent  an  army  to  Cambodia 
where  the  king  was  taken  prisoner  and  beheaded.  After  that  time,  the 
kings  of  Cambodia  every  morning  bowed  to  the  west  in  prayer  as  a 
tribute  to  the  Maharaja  of  Srivijaya.  The  Srivijaya  ruler  owned  a  pool 
paved  with  silver  and  connected  with  the  river  by  a  canal.  Every 
morning  a  priest  threw  in  a  bar  of  gold  and  at   ebb  tide  when  all   the  bars 


INDIAN  KINGDOMS  IN  INDONESIA  159 

of  gold  appeared  glittering  in    the   sun,    the   king   looked   out    from   his 
audience  hall  and  rejoiced  in    the    sight.     In   9-llth    centuries    Srivijaya 
(Palemhang)  had  monasteries  in     Bengal  and  S.    India.     Srivijaya   \Tas   a 
great    fl  )urishing   town    with     more    than    a    thousand    Buddhist    monks. 
Pilgrims   from  China,  who  wished  to  visit  the  holy  land  of  India,  lingered 
here  for  a  long  time  in  order  to  learn  Sanskrit  and  to  be    imbued  with  the 
teachings  of  Buddhism      In  7-t7  Srivijiya  received  with  lionor  Vajrabodhi 
and    Amoghavajra   on   their    way    to    Cliina   to   teach    them  the  tenets  of 
Vajrayana.     In  1377  Srivijaya  was    conquered    by   the    Indo-Javanese.     A 
large  granite  image   of   Buddha   of    5th   century,    now    in    the   garden   of 
Palembang    museum.     A    finely    wrought    fragment   of   a   god's  head   of 
which  only  the  left   half  of  the  face  has  been  spared,  the  hair  is    confined 
by  a  band    with    rosettes  -,   the   contours    are   full   and   gentle,    and   bear 
witness  to  great  artistic  skill,   resembling  7th    century    S.    India   style.     A 
bronze  preaching  Buddha    of   8  9th   century   seated    on    a   chair    with    a 
triangular  back  piece,  recalling  Gothic  art.     A  red  brick  tower   at    Muara 
Takus  in  Central  Sumatra  of  1 1th  century  has    been  found  ;  in  one    of  the 
towers  a  golden  disc  with  an    inscription    announcing  that    these     temples 
were  built  by  Vajradharas. 

But  who  were  the  Vijayas  =  Srivijayas  ?  Sihapura  was  founded  by 
Siha-bahu,  father  of  Vijaya.  Vijaya's  wife  Triloka  Sundari  was  born  in 
Sihapura  in  Singha-bhumi  =  (now  Singhbhum  =  KalingaK  Sihabahu  married 
his  sister  Sihasivali.  Siha  was  a  Licchavi  general.  Vijaya  and  703  others 
with  their  wives  and  children  left  Indian  shore  and  reached  Naggadipa 
and  Mahiladipaka ;  Vijaya  landed  in  Ceylon  on  the  day  of  Buddha's 
death.  Vijaya  sent  for  and  obtained  as  his  wife  a  daughter  of  the  Pandu 
king  of  Madurai  ;  Vijaya  reigned  for  38  years,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Pandu  Vasudeva  (Mhv.  6.  38,  7.  6  ;  Dpv.  9,  6).  A  brick  build  Buddhist 
Shrine  discovered  at  Kedah  (Katah  =  Kidaram  =  Kedara)  in  Malaya  Pen. 
may  be  of  4th,  5tli  century  A.  D.,  indicated  by  a  Sanskrit  inscription. 
Sanskrit  inscriptions  have  been  found  in  the  northern,  western  and 
eastern  parts  of  Malaya  Peninsula  ;  one  of  them  refers  to  Mah"i-navika  (a 
great  navigator)  Buddha  Gupta,  of  an  inhabitant  of  Rakta  Mrittika  which 
may  be  Ranga  Mati,  the  capital  of  Chittagong  Hill  Tracks  or  Chihitu 
(red  earth)  of  Siam. 

In  684  Srivijayas  of  Suvarnabhumi  was  ruled  by  Buddhist  king  Jaya- 
nasa  Jaya  Niga).  In  686  he  sent  an  embassy  to  China.  Srivijayas  had 
big  ships  and  traded,  with  both  India  and  China.  An  inscription  found 
at  Ligor  in  Malaya  dated  Saka  69/ =  775  mention  that  the  domination  of 
Srivijayas  Vijaya  rulers)  of  Palembung  extended  over  the  Malaya 
Peninsula  as  far  as  the  Bay  of  Bandon. 

Puma  Varman  niled  W  Java  (dvipavaram  Yavakhyam  =  the  excellent 
Island  named  Yava)  during  5th  and  6th  centuries.  He  was  of  Brahmanic 
faith  as  he  made  according  to  Tuga  inscription  a  gift  of  thousand  kine 
to  Brahmanas.  He  called  himself  Vikranta,  and  made  foot  impresses  of 
Vishnu,  patterned  after  his  own  feet— purusa  pada  mah  ilaksma  bhuti— to 
be  worshipped  by  his  subjects.  The  space  above  Puma  Varman's  Tuk 
Mas  inscription  is  filled  with  16  emblamatic  figures,  representing  a  wheel 
with  lo  spokes,  a  conch  (Sankha)  shell,  a  mace,  2  water  jars,  a  trident,  an 
axe,  a  club,  a  dagger. 

Perak  Malaya  became  the  Buddhist  kingdom  of  Srivijayas    under   the 


160  THE  LITBRABY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Sailendras  Both  Hinyana  and  Mahayana  Buddhism  became  dominant 
in  Kedah  in  fourth  century.  A  fifth  century  bronze  Hinayana  Baddha  in 
Amaravati  style  has  been  found  at  Kedah,  and  two  Hinay ina  Buddhist 
images  in  Kinta  valley  of  Perak.  Then  Pallavas  founded  Hindu  settle- 
ments in  Kedah  on  the  Bujanga  river,  building  temples  with  Ganesa  and 
Siva  with  trident.  In  8th  century  came  Malaya  again  under  the  Mahayanists 
of  the  Palas  of  Bengal.  A  bronze  casket  from  a  Kedah  temple  contained 
miniature  weapons  of  Ajanta  type  that  appear  later  in  the  carvings  of 
Borabudar.  One  broad  spatulate  dagger  has  been  found  in  a  Java  temple. 
Among  Malays  and  Khassis  husbands  and  wives  call  one  another  not  by 
their  own  names,  but  father  or  mother  of  so  and  so,  naming  their  child. 
In  Bengal  the  same  custom  prevails,  and  even  others  call  a  woman  not 
by  her  personal  name,  but  as  Rama's  or  Maya's  mother. 

C.  Java  kingdom  with  capital  at  Mataram  was  founded  by  Sannaha 
who  died  in  732,  Sannaha  was  succeeded  by  Sanjaya  who  ruled  over 
entire  Java  and  Bali  ;  led  expeditions  to  Sumatra,  Cambodia  and 
Annam.  After  his  death,  Sailendras  occupied  C.  Java.  Dharmadaya 
Mahasambhu  898-910  of  both  central  and  eastern  Java  ;  he  was  succeeded 
by  his  son  Dakshottama  who  assumed  the  title  of  Vajrab'ihu  in  915.  In 
Java,  Sindak  assumed  at  his  coronation  the  title  of  Sri  Isana  Vikrama 
Dharma  Tunga  (Tungas  and  Indras  were  the  surnamss  of  the  Chalukyas) 
Deva  in  929  and  ruled  for  20  years  He  was  succeeded  by  his  daughter 
who  ruled  as  queen  Sri  Isana  Tunga  Vijaya,  married  to  Sri  Lokapala, 
and  their  son  and  successor  was  Sri  Makuta  Vamsavardhana  who  had  a 
daughter  Mahendra  -  dattS  =  Gunapriya  Dharmapatni,  married  to  Udayana, 
and  they  had  a  son  Airilangga,  married  to  the  daughter  of  Dharmavamsa 
of  east  Java.  Udayana  and  Mahendradatta  (989- 1001)  were  ruling  Bdi 
as  viceroys  of  Dharmavamsa.  Both  Dharmavamsa  and  Sailendras  sent 
envoys  in  992  and  1003  to  the  Chinise  court  for  help.  Sailendras 
became  dominant.  Airilangga  had  to  hide  in  a  forest  ;  in  1010,  conse- 
crated by  Buddhist,  Saiva  and  Brahminical  priests,  he  assumed  the  title 
of  Sri  Lokesvara  Dharmavamsa  Airilangga  Ananta=  Vikrama  Tunga 
Deva,  and  ruled  over  a  small  territory  of  Pasurapan.  But  by  defeating 
the  Vijaya  king  of  Vengker  in  1035  who  was  put  into  prison  by  his  own 
soldiers,  he  became  the  master  of  the  whole  of  Java.  For  trade  many 
foreigners  came  during  his  reign  to  Java  as  Kling,  Simhala,  Dravida, 
Karnataka,  Champa  and  Kmir  (Khmer  =  Kambuja  Kamar  =  Kumar)  and 
to  facilitate  oversea  commerce  he  opened  a  port  Surabaya  at  the  mouth 
of  Branter  river,  and  another  at  Tuban.  A  stone  statue  of  Airilangga, 
sealed  on  Gadura  as  Vishnu  with  a  realistic  face,  wearing  a  necklace 
and  crown  was  erected  in  1045  at  Belaha.  Kritanagara,  son  of 
Vishnuvardhana,  sent  an  expedition  in  1284,  and  the  Bali  king  was 
brought  as  a  peisoner  to  him.  But  soon  after  he  again  asserted  its  indepen- 
dence. He  sent  another  expedition  to  Malaya  which  extended  far  into 
the  interior  of  Sumatra  which  he  made  a  vassel  slate  of  Java.  He 
also  conquered  Pahang  of  Malaya  Peninsula,  Bakulapura,  SW  of  Borneo 
(Varuna  dvipa  ;  Indonesian  ancient  name  Berunai)  Manila  (Manila) 
in  Samara  Dvipa  (Philippines),  Bali,  Sunda  and  Madura.  Tapasi,  a 
princess,  was  married  to  Jayasimha  Varnan  of  Champa.  Kritanagara 
had  no  son,  but  two  sons  in-law — Vijaya  and  Ardharaja — fought 
against  each  other  for  succession,  Mongols  under  Kublai  Khan  after 
occupying  China   sent   an    expedition     against     Kritanagara     with     the 


8AILKNDRAS  AND  CHOLAS  161 

connivance  of  Ardharaja.  Kritanagara  fought  and  died.  Vijaya  also 
did  not  submit,  and  at  first  fought  them  ;  but  failing  help  from  Virorfiji 
of  M"dur  I,  t  hough  he  was  offered  half  the  Javanese  kingdam,  Vijaya 
acknowledged  the  suzerantiy  of  Kublai  Khan  and  sent  embassies 
to  his  court  with  tributes  in  1297,  1298,  1  iOO.  1308.  Vijiya  assumed  the 
name  of  Kritarajasa  Jayavardhana  of  Majapahit  ;  in  129+  he  was  the 
sovereign  of  the  whole  of  Java,  by  marrying  the  four  remaining  daughters 
of  Kritanagara.  His  queen  was  G/iyitri  -  KAjapatni,  and  by  them  he  had 
two  daughters.  He  also  mirried  the  Malayu  princess  Indresvari  by  whom 
he  had  a  son  Jaya  Nagara,  the  prince  of  Kadira.  Sri  Vijayas  of  Malayasia 
held  some  authority  order  Kambuja  (Cambodia)  and  Champ i  (Annam', 
Kambuja  Jayavarma  II  (802-857)  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Sailendras  at 
the  time  they  lost  Java.  Sailendras  flourished  from  the  middle  of  ninth 
to  the  end  of  the  1 0th  century  in  Srivijayas,  and  they  had  to  fight  the 
Cholas  for  supremacy.  R^jendra  Chola  (10171025)  crossed  the  seas 
with  his  formidable  navy  and  defeated  the  naval  squadron  of  the 
Sailendras  and  their  allies,  conquered  lO  to  11  of  Sailendra  states,  and 
took  even  Kadira.  Rljendra  Chola's  conquests  extended  practically 
over  the  whole  of  tiie  eastern  coastal  region  of  Sumatra,  central  and 
southern  Malaya,  including  two  capital  cities  of  Kalaha  and  Sri  Vijaya. 
But  the  S.iilendras  asserted  their  independence  soon  after  the  death  of 
Raiendra  Chola.  Vira  Rijendra  (1063-1070)  claim  to  have  conquered 
Kadara  and  given  it  back  to  its  king  by  in  a  treaty  of  friendship.  Cnola 
Kulottungi  at  the  request  of  Kadara  ruler,  communicated  by  his 
envoys  Raja  Viddhadara  Samanta  and  Abhimanottunga  Samanta,  exempt- 
ed from  taxes  llie  village  granted  to  Buddhist  monastery  Sailendra  Cudl- 
mani  Varma  Vihara,  founded  and  named  by  the  Sailendra  ruler  Cuda- 
mani  Varman  at  Nagapattam  in  1005  when  a  village  was  granted  for  its 
upkeep  by  the  (-hola  king.  Candra  Bhanu,  king  of  Javaka,  in  the 
reign  of  Parakramab'thu  II,  attacked  Ceylon  in  1236  and  occupied  some 
parts  by  landing  an  army  at  Kakknala  ;  but  defeated  by  Virabahu,  the 
regent,  he  retreated  ;  but  in  1255  he  again  landed  at  Mahabriha,  rein- 
forced by  Pandya,  Chola  and  Tamil  soldiers.  But  Javaka  army  was 
again  defeated  by  Virabahu.  At  this  Pandya  king  Jatavarma  Vira  Pandya 
fell  upon  his  ally  Candrahhanu,  killed  him,  and  boasts  of  having  con- 
quered Ceylon.  Javanese  king  Kritangara  conquered  Pahang  in  Malay 
for  only  a  short  while.  In  1474  Kadaram  king  embraced  Islam.  Tenth 
century  inscription  of  Ugrasena  of  Bftli  has  been  found.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  century  Dharmavamsa,  the  king  of  Java,  conquered  Bali  and 
appointed  Udayana,  a  Balinese  noble,  married  to  a  Javanese  princess,  as 
a  governor  ;  the  offspring  of  this  union  is  Eirilingga  who  conquered 
Java  in  1035  and  became  the  joint  ruler  of  Java  and  Bali.  In  1317 
Bali  was  overran  by  Gaja  Madu,  the  prime  minister  of  Majaphits,  and 
annexed  it  to  the  Javanese  empire.  Towards  the  end  of  iSth  century, 
the  Majaphits  and  other  nobles  who  wanted  to  escape  Islamization  took 
refuge  in  Bali.  In  1908  the  Dutch  sent  an  expedition  against  Deva 
Aung  of  Klunking,  When  the  palace  was  besieged,  the  king  in  full 
regalia,  seated  on  a  golden  throne,  carried  on  the  should-'rs  of  his 
ministers  in  a  procession  of  women  and  children,  appeared.  The  Dutch 
opened  fire,  fearing  an  attack.  But  a  priest  in  a  white  robe  raised  his 
sword  and  struck  it  into  the  breasts  of  women  and  children.  The 
prince  was  then   first   to  fall  with  his    ministers    who   preferred    death  to 

11 


162  THE  lITeKARY  HISTOEY  of  ancient  INDIA 

subjugation  and  dishonor.  Those  who  could  be  captured  alive  where 
interned  in  the  neighboring  island  of  Lambok.  In  Jiva  and  Bali  in 
upp  -r  classes  one  notices  still  refined  and  graceful  Indo  Malayan  features, 
especially  among  women.  In  Bali,  mixed  Mahayana  Buddhism  and 
Hinduism  still  prevail  and  the  temples  are  still  fragrant  with  flowers  and 
incense,  ring  with  the  chants  of  the  priests,  soft  melody  and  swaying 
dances  of  the  charming  svelte  Ealinese  danseuses. 

Borobudur  is  a  pyramidal  stupa  shrine  in  nine  stages,  about  400  feet 
square  at  the  base  And  in  it  tht^re  are  about  2000  bas  reliefs  adorning 
the  gall  iries,  depicting  the  life  of  Buddha,  as  mentioned  in  Lalita  Vistara, 
Divyavadana  and  Jatakas,  which  if  laid  from  end  to  end  would  extend 
over  two  miles  And  they  are  noted  for  their  good  proportions, 
naturalness  of  gestures  and  artistic  realism.  Buddha  and  Prajnl  Paramita 
(transendental  wisdom)  in  sitting  meditating  postures  have  regular  sharp 
features  with  fine  chiselliug  in  Pallava  style.  Agastya  in  Candi  Benon  of 
early  ninth  century  ,Batavia  M'  has  fine  face  with  prominent  nose,  having 
mustasche  and  beard  ;  the  belly  is  protuberant,  wearing  a  sacred  thread, 
standing,  but  legs  broken-  At  Prambanam,  an  early  capital,  of  tenth 
century,  there,  are  six  large  and  150  small  temples  in  an  imposing  style. 
Kawi  alphabet  of  Java  evolved  from  Pallavan  and  Nagari  scripts,  brought 
by  the  Palas  and  Nagari  script  of  Bengal  in  8th  century  A,  D. 

OLD  JAVANESE  (Kakawin  =  Kavi)  LITERATURE  :  Amaramala.  like 
Amarakosa  in  San-^krit,  in  metrical  from,  contains  synonyms  ofi  deities, 
animals,  and  other  objects  Ramayana  by  Yogisvara  in  938  gives  the  subs- 
tance of  Sanskrit  version,  but  up  to  the  time  of  Sita's  fire  ordeal  and  the 
reunion  of  the  couple.  Mahabharata  however  is  a  prose  condensed  version  of 
Adi,  Virata  (996  A.  D.)  and  Bhisma  (but  12,  15,16  as  17th  chapters  of  the 
Git^  are  not  included)  Parvas  uuder  the  patronage  of  Diarmavamsa  ; 
Asrama,  Prasthanika,  Musala  Svargarohana  Parvas  are  of  later  date. 
Udyoga  Parva  is  in  corrupt  Sanskrit  in  condensed  form  and  the 
translation  follows  it  closely  Arjuna  Vivaha  was  written  by  Mpu  Kanwa 
under  the  patronage  of  Airilangga.  Ghatatkacasraya  describes  the  fight 
between  Abhimanyu  and  Laksmana  Kumara  for  winning  the  love  of 
Kshiti  Sundari  in  which  Ghatotkaca  came  to  the  help  of  Abhimanyu.  In 
Lubhdaka  there  is  a  fight  between  the  messengers  of  Yama  and  Siva 
over  the  corpse  of  a  hunter  who  spent  a  night  on  the  Siva  Ratri  on 
the  brances  of  a  Vilva  tree  and  some  of  its  leaves  fell  on  the  Siva  Linga 
beneath.  Indra  Vijaya,  a  poem,  narrates  the  victory  of  Indra  over 
Vritra,  and  Nahusa  secured  the  position  of  Indra  for  a  while.  Partha 
Yajna  mentions  that  Arjuna  by  a  Vmta  obtained  weap:)ns  from  Siva. 
Kala  Yavananka  describes  how  he  invaded  Dviraka  to  avenge  the  death 
of  Kamsa  and  was  reduced  to  ashes  by  Mucukunda.  Arjuna  carried 
away  Subhadra  when  Andhakas  and  Vrishnis  were  celebrating  a  festival 
on  Raivataka.  Rama-Vijaya  depicts  the  defeat  of  Sahasra-Vahu  .\rjuna 
by  Parasu  Rama  (R'lma  armed  with  a  double  axe;,  son  of  Jamadagni  and 
Renuka.  Ratna-Vijaya  described  the  trajic  fight  between  the  brothers 
Sunda  and  Upasunda  over  Tilottoma,  Partha-Vijaya  describes  the  death 
of  Iravan,  son  of  Arjuna  and  Citrangada,  comrade  of  Ulupi.  Us  ana  Java 
contains  the  history  of  Bali._  It  describes  how  the  king  of  Vilvatika 
(Mujaphit)  sent  his  brother  Arya  Damar  and  his  general  Gujah  Mada 
to  conquer  B  ill,  and  how  they  divided  the  island  amongst  themselves 
and   their  relatives.     Kutara  Manava  (in   an  inscription   of   1358   Kutara 


KAUNDINYAS  163 

M'lnavadi  S'stra  Vivec.inatatpara.  indicating  its  importance  is  based  on 
M  inava  Dharmi  Srira-Samiiccava)  is  a  diijfSt  of  laws  in  Sanskrit  vcrse 
followed  by  translation,  Siva  S  isana  is  written  in  old  Javanese,  associated 
with  the  Dharmavarmsa  kini^  Anlintavikr.unotlunt^a  Di;vi,  I'urvadhigaraa 
•s  the  digest  of  Siva-S.isana-S.iraddhrita  =■  B  dmese  i'urva  A^^ama. 

In  Kadsri  period  Krishnuyana  by  Triguna  (1019-1042),  a  pjL-m.  in 
which  \rjuna  fights  Nivata  Kavacha-for  the  gods;  motif  of  sculpture  at 
Lacon  Mintarga  deals  with  elopm:nt  of  Rukshmini  Ijy  Krishna,  and 
his  light  with  Jarasandha.  It  contains  a  descri;)tion  of  Dviravati  and 
mentions  the  names  of  Krishna's  10  wives  out  of  160J0  ,  sculptured  relief 
on  the  temple  of  Pantara  Samana-S  tntaka  (death  caused  by  a  flower) 
is  based  on  the  death  of  Indumati,  qu -'en  of  Aja  and  motht-r  of 
Dasaratha,  as  described  by  Kalid  sa  in  his  Kaghuvamsa,  Bi'tata  Vu  Idha 
was  written  in  the  reign  of  Jiyabhaga  (1  ISd  -  1157  ).  based  on  U;ljoga, 
Bhisma,  Drona,  Kama,  and  Siila  Parvas  of  MBh.  written  by  Mi'u  Sedah- 
in  1157  by  the  order  of  Kadira  king  Jayabhaya  in  simple  epic  style. 
Smara-Dihana  was  written  uader  the  patronage  of  Kadira  king  Kam-^s- 
vara  II  (1 185 ).  depicting  the  burning  of  Smara  by  Siva,  has -A  on 
Kum'ira  Sambhava.  N:ti  S  .stra  Kawin.  known  in  B  di  as  Nitisira, 
written  during  the  closing  years  of  Majaphit  like  Skt  Nitis  ira,  contains 
a  collection  of  moral  and  ethical  precepts  of  conduct. 

According  to  Chinese  records,  the  kingdom  of  Founan  in  Cambodia, 
was  established  in  first  century  A.  D,  but  archeological  objects  go  back 
to  the  middle  of  ?nd  century-  Small  Hindu- Buddhist  stales  existed  in 
the  same  century  throughout  Malayasia.  First  Sanskrit  inscriptions  in 
Borneo  and  Java  were  composed  in  5th  century  ;  though  the  images 
of  B  iddha  have  been  found  in  Annam  and  Celebes  earlier  than  30J. 
Colonizition  was  entirely  pacific  by  marrying  into  high  local  families, 
displaying  qualities  of  higher  civilization  and  trade  prosperity. 

It  is  mentioned  in  the  History  of  Chin  Dynasty  26'>-419  that  in 
Funan  ruled  a  queen  Liu-Yeh  willow  leaf  or  more  likely  Ye- Ye-cocoanut 
leaf  as  no  willo^vs  are  grown  in  Cambodia).  There  the  men  are  all  ugly 
and  black.  Their  hair  is  curly.  They  go  naked  on  bare  foot.  Probably 
a  Negrito  people.  There  Huntien  =  Kaundinya  came  in  a  ship  from 
Mo-fu  (Malaya),  and  married  the  queen  and  gave  her  cotton  clothing 
who  was  clad  only  only  in  tropical  sun  shine.  Then  came  by  first  century 
A.D.  Chu  Can-tan  =  Candan  who  sent  an  embasry  to  Cliinese  court,  offer- 
ing elephants.  Candan  was  the  royal  title  of  Murunda  Kushans  Vo - 
Canh  inscriptions  233-238  are  in  Kushan  character.  Fanan  had  libraries 
and  books  written  in  language  which  resembled  that  of  India.  Candan  was 
succeeded  by  Chenju  =•  Kaundinya  Bhadravarman.  a  Brahmin  who  came 
with  his  wife,  a  Somavamsi  Nagi,  called  Soma-  Bhadra  Vurman 
(Chinese  Fan,  the  king  of  Funan)  had  several  inscriptions  in  Sanskrit, 
in  characters  of  C  I  Vengi  type,  the  old  Pallava  capital  between  Kishna 
and  Gadavari,  resembling  many  Pallava  characters. 

Kaundinya  Bhadravarman,  his  wife  Nigi  Som\,  and  his  brother 
Citrasena  Mahendra  Varman  become  popular  rulers  and  they 
sent  presents  to  the  Chinese  court  to»vards  the  close  of  che 
Sung  period  420- -t78.  Jayavarman  (Cn.o  ye-pa  mo)  of  Kaundinya 
family  ruled  in  Funan  and  sent  some  merchants  to  Canton  for 
•trade.    On  their   return  voyage    to   India   m^nk    Na-Kia-Sien  (Nagasena) 


164  THE  LITERARY  HISTOET  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

joined  them  to  return  to  his  country.  But  a  storm  forced  the  ship  to- 
land  in  Campa  (named  after  the  Champa  =  Tsiampa  people  in  Annam) 
where  the  ship  was  pillaged.  Nagasena  however  managed  to  reach 
Funan.  In  484  Jayavarman  (protector)  sent  Nagasena  to  the  Imperial 
Court,  complaining  that  Bhadhravarraan,  one  of  his  relative  officer  sent  to 
Champa  for  administrative  purposes,  has  usurped  the  throne  and  has 
rebelled  against  him,  organizing  the  local  men.  Jayavarman  asked 
military  help,  even  a  small  nominal  force,  to  chastise  the  usurper 
rebellious  king  of  Champa.  Nagasena  presented  a  poem  to  the  emperor, 
praising  Mahesvara.  Buddha  and  the  emperor.  Though  the  emperor 
condemned  the  action  of  the  Champa  king  for  declaring  independence 
and  defying  the  order  of  his  former  master,  he  declined  to  intervene. 
Jayavarman  however  sent  representation  again  in  503,  511,  514  with 
presents,  including  an  image  in  coral.  Jayavarman's  queen  was  Kula 
Prabhavati,  and  they  had  a  son  Gunavarman  who  is  styled  rajasunu  (king's 
son),  called  himself  Kaundiaya  vamsa  sasi— the  Kaundinya  moon). 

Rudravarman,  younger  brother  of  Bhadravarman  (Sri  Bhadravarm- 
manujah  (?  0  Nagar  2),  attacked  Funan,  killed  Gunavarman,  and  became 
the  joint  ruler  of  both  Campa  and  Funan,  Rudra  Varman  sent  6  embassies 
to  the  Chinese  court  between  517-538.  During  his  reign  Funan  was 
invaded  by  Kambujos. 

Kaundinyas  were  Agastya  and  Drona  ;  because  they  were  born 
in  jars,  hence  called  kumbha-yonis  =  Kundins  or  Kaundinyas  (  M  Bh. 
1,  63).  Kundina,  son  of  Dhritarastra,  M  Bh.  1.  37.16.  Kandinya,  a  Saka 
tribe  in  Jatakas.  Kaundinya  is  associated  with  Pahlavas  (MBh.  2.  4.). 
Kaundinays  influencial  in  Mysore  Kaundinya  is  a  Scythian  clan  like 
Sodasa  as  mentioned  in  the  Lion  Capital  of  Mathura.  Kunindas  who  ruled 
the  hilly  region  on  the  Sutlej  during  1st.  century  B.  C.  had  their 
coins  both  with  Br  and  Kh  legends.  Kaundinaya,  a  Brahmin,  got  a 
javelin  from  Asvathama  (  son  of  Drona  )  and  pitched  it  on  the  site  of 
the  future  capital.  He  then  married  Soma,  the  daughter  of  Naga 
(Ngao,  Na  khi  of  SWChina,  or  Mon-Khmer  Phong  =  Ngo-loks  of  NW 
Tibet;  As.  snaca  =  Swed.  snok  =  snake)  king.  This  union  was  comme- 
morated at  the  court  of  Angkor  up  to  13th  century.  In  an  Amaravati 
inscription,  Pallavas  claim  the  similar  origin.  Asoka  sent  two 
missionaries — Sona  and  Uttara — to  Suvarnabhumi — Pegu  to  Malaya 
Peninsula.  This  Hinayana  Buddhism  reached  Nagara  Pathana  at  a 
very  early  date.  For  early  Buddhist  symbols  as  Caitya  and  Cakra  were 
used  instead  of  the  images  of  Buddha  which  was  introduced  during  the 
Kushan  period.  Kanishka  sent  Mahayana  missions  to  Tibet,  China  and 
S.  India.  Mahayanist  images  turning  the  wheel  of  law  dating  from 
1st  century  A.  D.  have  been  found  at  Nagara  Pathana  in  Siam. 
3rd — 7th  century  Mons  formed  the  kingdom  of  Dvaravati  in  the 
valley  of  which  remains  have  been  left  in  the  shape  of  Sanskrit 
inscriptions  and  Buddhist  images,  representing  Sarnath.  Indian  colonies 
at  Hastinapur  (  Tagaung  ie  N.  Burma).  Tunhsun  (Tenasserin  ),  Srikhetra 
(Prone),  Vishnupur  (Pisanu  Myo),  Suddhamavati  (Thaton),  capital  of 
Ramanayo  country,  are  known.  In  Borneo  (Varuna  dvipa),  4  Sanskrit 
inscriptions  on  yupa  stone  pillars  by  Mulavarman  (2  stone  yupa 
pillars,  bearing,  inscriptions  during  the  reign  of  Kushan  Vasiska 
have  been  found  near  Mathura),  son  of  Asvavarman  and  grandson  of 
Kundunga  (Kundugual  and  Kundukura  are  Tamil  names)  of  400  A,  D.  ia 


KAMB0JA3  166 

Pallava  Grantha  character,  have  been  found.  Pattinappalai  is  a  poem  of  the 
time  of  Chela  Karikala  of  2nd  Century  A.  D.,  Kadnrani  of  camphor  and 
spices  is  likely  the  Ivedah  on  the  west  coast  cf  Malaya.  At  Kuala 
Selinsing  (Perak),  a  seat  inscribed  in  Pallava  Grantha  character,  has  been 
■found.  In  Celebes  at  Sempage,  a  bronze  Buddha  of  Amaravati  school, 
has  been  dug  out.  In  ChampX  Sanskrit  inscriptions  of  the  Varmans  ol 
Kaundinya  descent  are  either  in  Palhiva,  Kadamt)a  or  V;"ik."ttaka  scripts 
which  are  very  similar  to  eacli  other.  But  who  were  the  K  imbujas  ?  Kamby- 
ses  of  Iran,  called  in  O  Persian  Kabujiya.  Ivamuia  in  the  Lion  Capital 
of  Mathura.  Kambohas  of  NW  Pnnjab.  was  a  branch  of  the  Scythian 
Cambysena  of  ancient  Armenia.  In  our  ancient  annals  it  is  mentioned 
that  the  Haihayas  (  Hiao  Ilui  Huns)  with  the  cooperation  of  Saka.s, 
Yavanas  (Heb,  Javan  =  in  cuneiforms  of  Sargon  732-705  B  C.  I  avanu - 
Assyr.  lamanu.  v  being  changed  into  into  m  ;  later,  llelleniz'id  and 
philo-hellenic  Scythians  and  Parthians  ;  then  Persians,  and  at  last  all 
foreigners  including  .Arabs  ;  they  were  also  called  Mleccha,  after 
Molossi  of  Epirus  who  came  with  the  lonians  .  Kambojas  (Kamuia  = 
Cambysene),  Paradra  (Saka  Paraderya  =  Afddi  ),  and  Pahlavas 
(Pehlevi- Pirthava=  Parthians),  coming  from  N.  W.  India  attacked 
Kosala  (VAyu  P.  88  122).  In  Vamsa  Br  of  Samaveda.  it  is  mentioned 
that  Kambjja  Upaminyava  is  a  Vedic  teacher  ;  Upamanyu  is  the 
composer  of  Rv.  1.102.9  In  Yaska's  Nirukta,  it  is  mentioned  that 
Kambojas  spoke  a  different  vedic  dialect  as  savaci  which  is  an  Iranian 
word.  From  6th  to  l.'th  century  Lobburi  (Navapuri;  was  politically 
a  part  of  Kamhujia  kingdom,  Lopapara  formed  a  part  of  Kambuja  known 
to  the  Chinese  as  Funan  and  Kan-to-li,  though  nominally  a  part  of  Malay, 
as  far  as  Kedah  and  Ligor  (Sithammarat  =  Sri  Nakan  Thamrat  =  Sri 
Dharmaraja  Nagarai  in  Jaiya.  The  southern  kingdon  was  l-Jvar^vati. 
Remains  of  Gupta  and  Pallava  arts  are  found  there  as  Vishnu  from  Vien 
Srah  and  Lokesvara  from  Jaiya  iBmgkokM),  Buddha  fropa  Dharavati 
in  Lophuri  Museum.  In  Pyu  =  01d  Prome  was  established  Sri  Kshetra  =  the 
field  ot  glory,  founded  by  a  Vikrama  Dynasty  from  6^7-718  which  is 
the  beginning  of  the  Burmese  Era  633  AD.  The  inscriptions  are  in  a 
S  I.  script.  There  are  three  stupas  of  archaic  type  of  which  Bawbawgyi 
is  one— a  cylinder  of  plaster  brick  150  feet  high  with  a  hollow  shaft  in  the 
centre,  crowned  with  a  flattened  cone,  with  both  forms  of  Buddhism 
— Mahnyanism  and  Hin'iyanism  with  Vishnu  worship.  Mahayanism  and 
Brahnmanism  introduced  Sanskrit,  and  HinJtyanism  P:ili  and  Prakrita. 
There  are  large  stone  Buddhist  sculptures  in  relief  in  the  Gupta  style,  bronze 
statuettes  of  Avalikitesvara  and  images  of  Vishnu-  The  people  burnt 
the  dead  and  their  ashes  (  asti  ,'',sa)  were  stored  in  urns.  In  Arakan 
Candra  Dynasty  of  Bengal  had  their  capital  named  as  VaisAli  from  4th 
century  A.D.  Thirteen  kings  ruled  for  230  years.  The  second  dynasty 
was  founded  by  Dharma  Vijaya.  His  grandson  married  a  daughter  of  the 
Pyu  king  of  Sri  Kshetra. 

In  Raghuvamsa  of  Kslidasa,  Raghu  defeating  the  Hunas  (Huangu-nu) 
on  the  Vankshu  (Oxus),  fights  the  Kambojas.  Kamboja  in  likely  the  Kaofu 
=  Kanbu  of  HuanTsang  in  Afghanistan,  Kamboh.  of  the  Punjab.  It  is  very 
likely  that  a  branch  of  the  Scythian  Kambysene  reached  the  Tibetan 
plateau  where  they  mixed  with  tlie  people,  and  some  Tibetans  are  even 
called  Kambojas  ;  and  though  Tibet  they  came  to  the  Mekong  valley 
•where   they   were   called    Kambojas   (Cambodians),   now   repres'inted    by 


166  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Chams,  still  a  tall  fair-complexioned  dolichocephalic  people  with  non- 
Mongoloid  eyes,  of  the  Mon  Khmers.  It  is  recorded  in  the  archives  of 
Siam  fnamed  after  the  people  Sayamas)  that  Kambujas  occupied  N  Siam 
in  543  B.C.,  and  only  expelled  about  443  AD  by  the  Thais.  The  oldest 
Khmer  inscription  in  Siam  are  those  written  in  Sanskrit,  found  at  Surin 
and  Tam  Pettong  (  cave  to  the  golden  duck),  all  dating  from  the  time  of 
Citrasena  (Mohendra  Varman  )  early  in  seventh  century.  There  are 
other  inscriptions  in  both  Sanskrit  and  Khmer  of  later  seventh  century. 
A  Sanskrit  inscription  of  4th  century  AD  has  been  found  at  Mung  siTep 
near  Pechahury  with  Saiva  and  Vanisnava  sculptures.  It  is  not  till  after 
the  fall  of  Funan  that  an  important  principality  of  Siam,  called  Dvaravati 
(Buddhist^  rose  in  importance  with  its  capital  at  Lophuri  (Lavapuri)  =  Supa, 
resembling  Gupta  arts  of  India.  DvAravati  sent  embassies  to  China 
in  638  and  649  ;  it  extended  from  Cambodia  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 
Hinduized  Mons  dominated  over  the  Dvaravati  kingdom,  and  its  influ- 
ence extended  as  far  north  as  Haripanjoy  =  Lamphun,  and  the  kingdom 
extended  their  authority  over  the  lower  Menan  valley,  and  gradually 
Kamboja  authority  was  established  over  the  whole  of  Siam,  continuing 
till  13th  century  when  Thais  established  several  independent  kingdoms. 
Thai  =  Dai  had  an  independent  state  in  Yunan.  Ahoms  including  the 
Borahi  (now  known  as  Barua  in  Chittagong  area)  belonged  to  them, 
absorbing  the  Shans,  and  mixed  Mons  occupied  the  Assam  Valley. 
Kambuja  was  originally  a  vassal  state  of  Funan,  and  eatablished  an 
independent  state  of  Kambujas  with  Sreshtapura  as  his  capital.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Bhavavarman  in  560,  who  set  up  a  new  capital  at 
Bhavapura  and  claimed  descent  from  Kaundinya,  rather  from  Kambu. 
His  brother  Mahendravarman  led  an  expedition  against  Rudravarman  of 
Funan  and  conquered  it  and  died  in  616,  succeeded  by  his  son  Isana- 
Varman  who  became  the  joint  ruler  of  Cambodia  and  Cochin  China,  and 
made  Isanapura  (Sambor  Prei  Kuk)  his  capital.  Isana's  daughter 
Sri  Sarvani  was  married  to  Jagoddharma,  and  in  657,  their  son 
Prakasadharma  restored  order  and  peace  in  Campa.  The  next  Kambuja 
king  was  Jayavarman.  He  lived  in  Java.  His  mother's  mother  was  the 
daughter  of  the  sister  of  Pushkaraksha,  the  ruler  of  Aninditapura  of 
Campa  and  Sambhura.  By  marrying  the  only  daughter  of  the  ruler  of 
Samphupura,  Jayavarman  freed  Kambuja  from  the  Sailendra  domitation 
of  Java.  He  invited  Hirnyadana  to  perform  some  Tantric  ritts,  who 
also  initiated  the  royal  priest  Siva  Kaivallya  into  Tantric  cults. 
In  Myson  Stele  it  is  mentioned  that  when  Ganga  Raja  abdicated,  he 
drowned  himself  in  Jahnavi.  It  is  known  Nandivarman  fought  Gangas. 
And  Ganga  king  Prithivipati  helped  Dantivarman  to  fight  against 
Pandyas.  bhadravarman  of  Campa  assumed  the  title  of  Dharma  Maharaja 
like  the  Pallava  king  Siva  Skanda  Varman  who  called  himself  Dharma 
Maharajadhiraj  (Aggithoma  vajapey  assamedha  yadi  Dhamma  Maharaji- 
dhirajo  Bharaddayo  Pallavana  Sivakhamdavamo  =  who  performed 
Agnistoma  Vajapeya,  asvamedha — Pallava  Bharadvaja  Dharma  Maha, 
rajadhiraj  Siva  Skanda  Varman).  And  like  the  Pallavas  he  and  many 
other  kings  of  Campa  made  gods  and  temples  after  their  own  names. 
Homage  to  God.  Through  the  favour  of  the  adorable  Bhadresvara 
svamin,  as  long  as  the  sun  and  the  moon  (exist),  the  sons  and  grandsons 
of  the  illustrious  Dharmmamaharaja  Bhadravarma  will  enjoy  the  kingdom. 
Mahendra   Varman   (£00-630)  whose   biruda   was     Abanibhgjana   erected 


ACrASTYA  DYNASTY  167 

Abanibhijnna  Pallavesvara  temple.  Paramcsvara  Varman  ^6S0)  whose 
subtitle  was  Vidya-vinita  erected  a  Siva  temple  called  Vidya  vinita. 
Pallava  Paramesvara  Griha.  Rajasimha  (6S0-70))  erected  at  Kanci  Raja- 
simbesvara  whicb  was  latur  known  as  Kailasanatha  temple. 
Jayavarman  II  (724),  a  scion  of  Saml)hiipura.  ocupit-d  the  throne  by 
force.  He  traced  his  origin  to  Kambu  and  not  to  Kundina,  He  assumed 
the  title  of  Kambuj'^svara  and  his  queen  Kambuja  Lnkshmi.  They  had 
a  son  Dharmavardhana  who  assumed  the  title  of  Jayavarman  III  (Devi 
Kambuja  Lakshmis  sa  sadhvi  stri  Dharmavarttini.  sri  Dharmmavardhana 
putram  sushuve  Dharmavardhanam,  Phnom  prah  Vihear  B.  9). 
Sri  Jayavaman  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Indravarman  (799)  whom 
he  obtained  after  many  sacrifices.  After  his  father's  dtath  he  erected 
the  temple  of  Isana  Hhadresvara,  and  its  Linga  worship  was  put  in 
charge  of  the  chief  priest.  Indravarman's  queen  Indrfi  Djvi 
claimed  royal  parentage  from  both  father's  and  mother's  side, 
one  of  Vyadhapura  king  and  another  from  Agastya,  a  Brahmin  of 
Aryadesa  who  founded  another  dynasty.  Agastya  married  Yasomati, 
the  princess  of  Adhiraja  of  Vyadhapura.  and  thereby  acquired  its  domina- 
tion. They  had  a  son  Narendra  Varman.  Narendra  Varman  had  a 
daughter,  Narendra  Laksmi  who  was  married  to  Rajipativarman,  a  scion 
of  Vyadhapura.  They  had  a  daughter  Rajendra  Devi  who  was  married  to 
Mahapativarman,  son  of  Rajendra  Varman.  king  of  Vyadapura  and 
Samb.nupura.  Their  daughter  was  Indra  Davi  who  was  married  to 
Indravarman  of  Campa.  Their  son  was  Yasovarman  (811;  who  introduced 
Nagari  script  of  R  istrakutas  and  Calukyas  of  Kalyana.  He  erected  a 
Bhavani  temple  to  whose  service  he  dedicated  many  slaves 

Yasodhara  erected  many  temples  with  images  of  Indu  (Moon,  Prasat 
Ta  Sion  stele).  Paramesa  Bakon  stele i,  Ganesa  (Pah  Neak  Buas  stele), 
Panca  Lingesvara  (Prah  Theat  Prah  Slele),  Rudra-Parvitesa  (Siey  Krup 
Seak  Stele,  Kirtikaya  Vat  Ha  Stlee),  Bhavani  the  image  of  which  he 
has  himself  made  (Loley\  Narayana  (Vat  Kandal  Stele),  an  Asrama 
with  land  and  slaves  for  Tapasas  iHome  Tamoh  st'le\  a  home  for  the  re- 
fugees where  no  culprit  can  be  arrested,  no  animal  can  be  hunted  or  killed. 

Prilhivindarvarman  was  the  viceroy  of  Panduranga  Pura  tPhanrang)  ; 
but  he  claimed  to  the  ruler  of  entire  Camp  i.  Priihindravarman  died  in 
774  and  was  succeeded  by  his  sister's  son  Satyavarman  who  was  attacked 
by  Javanese  sea  raiders  in  774  who  took  away  Siva-mukha  Lingam 
(Phallus  sculptured  on  the  body  of  Siva>  from  his  temple.  Satyavarman 
pursued  the  raiders  in  his  own  ships,  bur  failing  to  recover  it,  installed 
a  similar  image  in  78r,  and  bent  (Skt  namas,  naman  =  Gk  nemow  -  Goth, 
niman  =  Ger.  nehmen)  daily.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Indravarman. 
In  7i7  Javanese  sea  raiders  sicked  and  plundered  Bhadradhipatisvara 
temple.  Indravarmman  erected  at  Virpuri  Indrogesvara  temple  in  799 
and  in  807  Indrabhadresvara  temple.  Indravarman  was  succeeded  by 
his  sister's  husband,  as  amongst  the  Saka-Andhras,  who  assumed  the 
title  of  Harivarmma-Deva-R;')]  .dhiraja,  Campipura  Parmesvara.  He 
conqueared  2  Chinese  districts  from  which  he  was  forced  later  to 
withdraw.  He  was  succeeaded  by  his  son  Vikr;intavarman,  who  was 
made  at  first  the  Viceroy  of  Panduragapura  under  SenApati  P..r  who 
led  an  expedition  against  the  Kambujas,  replaced  by  a  stone  im.ige 
of  Bhogavati  for  'gold  idol  that  was  carried  away  and  also  erected 
Linga,  Skandha,  and  Vinayaka   shrines  with  fine  Mandapas. 


168  THE  LITERARY  HISTOBy  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Yasovarman  died  in  210  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Harsavarman 
who  dedicated  six  women  every  fortnight  to  Adrivyadapuresa  (Namma 
Sri  Harshavarmma  Sas  Sri  Yasavarma  putrah.  Adrivyadhapursea  dat 
shat  Kanth  prati  pakhham,  Vat  Cliakret,  (3  4).  Harshavardhana  was 
succeeded  by  his  younger  brother  Isanavarman.  Isana  Varman  was 
succeeded  by  Jayavarman,  the  husband  of  the  sister  of  Yasa  Varman, 
who  rebelled  agaiiut  Isana  and  set  up  as  an  independent  king  in  921. 
Yasavarman  built  the  royal  palace  Angkar  Thom  =  Nagara  Dhania 
after  Isana's  death,  in  928,  The  sole  monarch  of  the  region  fortified  it, 
now  known  as  Phima  Nakais,  (Bhima  =  big,  naka  =  heavenly,  ais  =  abode) 
in9l0andthe  pyramidical  shrine  and  image  of  Madhava  under  the 
the  name  of  Trailokyanatha  by  his  chief  minister  Sri  Satyacraya. 
Jayavarman  married  Prana  who  was  called  Kambuja  Lakshmi,  the 
youngest  daughter  of  Kesava  Bhatta  =  Krishnapala  Amafendra=  Arima- 
thana  who  was  made  the  royal  priest  (  A  11).  The  brother  of  queen 
Prana  Vishnuvala  =  Laksmindra  Jayavarman  his  treasurer  (eka  Vitta- 
dhipa  A,  6  6)  The  eldest  sister  of  Prana,  Pavitra  became  the  wife 
of  highly  intelligent  Vinduvardha.  and  her  elder  sister  Prabhavati 
became  the  soul  comrade  of  Brahmin  Rishikesa  (Pavitrakhya  ca  sa 
patni  Vindvadhasya  mahadhiya,  Prabhabavti  priys  hridya  Hrishikesa 
dvijanmauha,  A  lO).  Prabhavati  became  the  mother  of  Adhyapaka 
Rajendra  Pandita  B  11,  Phnom  Prah  Vihear).  Sarvajnamuni  born  in 
Arya  desa  (7-10)  came  to  Kambu  desa.  He  was  made  the  priest  of 
Bhadresvara  temple.  Of  him  was  born  Siddha  Vidyesadhimant  (103). 
Jayavarman  1082-1 107,  the  builder  of  Takov.  made  him  the  officiating 
priest  to  celebrate  the  Yuvaraja  ceremony  of  his  son  Sri  Indravarman 
(51-53  Angkor  Vat  .  A  Khmer  inscription  on  a  stele  No  153  mentions 
that  Dharani  Indravarman  and  his  successor  Suryavarman  II.  who  ruled 
between  1113-1145  built  up  Angarvat  (Nagara  vata  =  Banian  =  Chin. 
Shu  of  Sung  period,  and  peepul  =  Chin.  puti  =  Ficus  religiosa.  were  wor- 
shipped in  Amoy,  occupying  an  important  place  in  Taost  mythology  as 
symbols  of  longevity  and  married  happiness  during  Sung  period). 
Suryavarman  I  of  the  race  of  Indravarman,  usurped  the  throne  by  armed 
rebellion.  He  made  his  uncle  Sankara  Pandita,  scholar  and  a  poet, 
his  Furahita,  ousting  the  exclusive  privilege  of  Sivakaivalyas.  He  made 
an  alliance  with  China.  He  had  a  famous  guru,  his  mother's  brother 
named  Yogisvara  Pandita  who  was  descended  in  female  line  from 
Bhas-svamini,  principal  wife  of  Jayavarman,  daughter  of  Vishnu  Brahman. 
A  torso  of  a  female,  upper  parts  nude  with  excellent  anatomical 
outline  16|'  high  in  grey  limestone,  has  been  found,  cf  the 
time  of  Udaya  Aditya  Varman  II  1050-1066,  son  of  Suryavarman  who 
built  Baphuon  at  Bayon.  At  Angkor  Vai,  from  the  main  entrance,  a 
paved  causeway  protected  by  Naga  balustrade,  leads  between  2  pretty 
library  buildings  ;Pustakasrama)  to  a  platform,  just  in  front  of  the 
temple  proper.  This  entrance  is  only  one  of  four,  situated  in  the 
middle  of  each  of  the  four  sides  of  the  great  double  gallery  which 
encloses  the  inner  terraces.  The  inner  gallery  to  the  height  of 
3m  along  the  length  of  800m  is  covered  with  basreliefs  of  the  Hindu 
mythology.  Four  entrances  lead  from  these  galleries  to  an  inner 
court  on  higher  level,  enclosing  again  a  smaller  court  of  richly 
sculptured  galleries,  surrounding  four  water  reservoirs  From  here, 
one   can   reach   the   central  innermost   court    in   the     center    of    which 


ANGKOR  VAT  169 

stands  the  enormous  pyramidal  basement,  supporting  five  pyramidal 
towers  to  be  reached  by  steep  stone  stairways,  the  central  tower  of 
which  has  tlie  hei'j;ht  of  65  meters.  The  porpjrtions  are  ri.ally  awe- 
inspirins;.  The  moat  surrounding  the  Angkorvat  temple  is  more  than 
650  ft  wide  and  is  spanned  on  the  western  side  by  a  stone  causeway, 
36  ft  broad.  The  length  of  the  moat  around  the  temi)le  is  ab  >ut  2;]- 
miles.  A  paved  avenue  runs  from  the  western  gateway  ovt;r  i500  ft 
to  the  first  gallery  which  is  800  ft.  from  east  to  west  and  about  1700  ft 
from  north  to  south.  The  central  tower  rises  200  ft  above  the  level 
ground  and  its  peak  is  the  phallus  of  Vishnu.  It  is  a  qigantic  pyr.imid 
with  concentric  gallaries  uniting  the  whole,  The  galleries  are  cndU-ssly 
decorated  with  bas  reliefs  of  deities  of  peculiar  ellusive  smiles  with 
half  closed  eyes. 

Preat  Viheoer  Inscription  :  "Then  in  Saka  1035  (1113  Ar3),  his  majesty 
Suryavarman,  grandnephew  on  the  maternal  side  of  Jiyavarman  1082- 
1107  and  Dharanindravarman  1107-1113  ''son  of  Nart"ndr;i  Lakshmi.  niece 
of  these  kings  married  to  Kshitndraditya),  mounted  on  the  tlirone,  and 
invited  the  Vrah  Guru  to  proceed  to  the  royal  anoinmenl,  Varah  Guru 
DivSkara  Pandita  made  offering  to  SikharesvaraSiva,  encrusted  with  preci- 
ous stones."  Suryavarman  was  a  great  builder.  Beng  Mealea  is  one  of 
his  splendid  creations  Beng  Mealea  was  built  in  Ijluish  sandstones, 
from  nearby  quarries.  Though  it  was  well  constructed,  political  or 
religious  vandalism  has  brought  out  its  ruin.  Beng  Nealea  was  one  of 
the  largest  and  most  magnificant  of  Khmer  temples.  It  consisted  of  central 
sanctuary  and  its  three  slightly  rectangular  enclosing  galleries,  tied 
together  by  cruciform  galleries  and  two  large  edifices  on  the  south  side 
of  the  third  enclosure,  thought  to  be  palaces  or  h.dls  of  ritual  dances, 
On  the  east,  a  causeway  with  mas^nificent  naga  balustrade  led  to  a 
lower  moat.  A  cruciform  terrace  preceded  each  Gopuram  of  the  other 
galleries.  The  most  chiracterslic  of  this  monument  is  the  wide 
galleries,  entirely  vaulted  .in  stone,  and  a  vault  supported  on  one  side 
by  a  wall  and  on  the  other  side  by  a  row  of  pillars.  He  built  at 
Prasad  Phmono  Chesar  two  large  rectangular  brick  libraries  on  platforms 
with  long  porticoes  and  stairways  in  front  which  were  symetricaliy 
placed  and  reguhrty  ornamented.  They  were  lighted  on  each  side  by 
two  highly  placed  rectangular  windows  with  balusters.  Two  redented 
square    brick  towers,    one    on   each   side  of  the  central  sanctuary 

During  the  reign  of  Jiyavarman  VI  (1 180-1201),  the  largest  Khmer 
temple  was  built  at  Bantia  Chamar  which  is  surrounded  by  a  moat  of  a 
width  of  70  yards  and  over  10  feet  deep,  forming  regular  quadri- 
lateral. This  was  crossed  by  4  causeways  on  the  north-south  and 
east-west  axes  of  the  building  more  than  3-3^  square  miles.  The 
characterstic  of  the  main  temple  is  that  as  the  inner  sanctuary 
is  approached,  the  height  of  the  towers  at  the  crossing  of  the  galleries 
increases.  From  a  height  of  20  feet,  they  rise  to  60  feet.  An  outside 
gallery  encloses  the  temple  in  a  rectangle  27  3  yards  by  207  yards.  It 
consists  or  a  vaulted  byway  of  a  ceremonial  terrace  surrounded  with 
Naga  serpent  parapets,  and  having  stairways  flanked  by  lions.  The 
entablature  of  the  cruciform  gallery  is  decorated  with  winged  women, 
holding  lotus  buds  in  their  uplifted  hands  (  IL  N  Sept  18,  1937).  Grace- 
ful Apsaras  with  a  fan  in  the  uplifted  left  hand  and  a  lotus  bud  in 
their  right  hand  are  carved  on  the  walls. 


170  THE  LITERARY  HISTOBT  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Javanese  Sculptures  :  Borohudur  is  gigantic  Buddhistic  stupa 
with  intricate  designs  of  ninth  century  ;  there  are  about  '200 
well-executed  high  reliefs  on  volcanic  Trachyt.  Buddha  images 
with  bhuniisparsa  mudr'k  and  dharani  cahra  mudra.  are  life- 
like and  resemble  Gupta  arts.  In  the  upper  panel  of  1st 
gallery  Buddha  in  a  standing  posture  taking  his  bath,  and 
Apsaras  [a  (without)  psara  (shame  =Zd  f8aerma  =  0  G  S.  sramo 
Pers.  saram.  apsa,ra  (shameless  woman  =  strumpet]  are  singing 
and  dancing  while  deers  are  brousing  on  tree  leaves,  as  depi- 
cted in  Lalita  Vistara.  In  the  lower  panel  there  is  a  big  three- 
masted  and  sailed  wooden  ship  on  high  seas.  la  another,  women 
are  drawing  water  from  a  well  and  fiilling  the  jars  and  return- 
ing home  with  water-jars  on  their  head.  Siva  Temple  at 
Prambanan  is  likely  of  lO-Hth  century,  in  which  the  Ramayana 
scenes  are  depicted  •  4-armed  standing  Siva  Mahadeva  and  3 
dancing    Apsaras  •  two  bearded  mustached  arguing  devotees. 

At  Tjandi  iCandi'  Banon,  there  is  a  standing  Agastya  with  protuberant 
belly,  fine  nose,  beard  and  mustache  as  in  Pallava  Agastyesvara 
Temple,  Melapaluvur  of  8th  century  with  slender  octagonal  pillars, 
supported  by  sitting  lions.  Tjandi  Mendoet  has  a  fine  Makara  staircase 
on  whose  sides  there  are  animated  bas  reliefs,  containing  the  images  of 
Bodhisattva  and  Amitabha  Buddha  ;  sitting  bronze  Sokyamuni  is  now 
in  Leiden  M.  Tjandi  Pawon  is  a  Siva  temple  with  two  women  door 
keepers.  Tjandi  Kalasan  bas  a  fine  oval-faced  cross-legged  sitting 
Buddha.  Vitara  Sari  is  a  three-storied  structure  and  it  is  covered  all 
wth  fine  high  reliefs  ;  its  standing  Bodhisattva  is  very  fine.  Tjandi 
Sewoe  is  a  huge  structure  with  fine  engravings.  Tjandi  Sri  Kandi 
Dieng  has  an  excellent  Vishnu  relief.  Jnandi  Poentadewa  (Pavana  deva), 
at  Dieng  is  a  two  storied  temple  on  a  high  platform.  Tjandi  Bima 
at  Dieng  is  a  pyramidical  temple  with  the  heads  of  Dikinis.  At  Bagein 
in  Dieng  there  is  a  fine  crouching  Nandi  Bull.  Tjandi  Ngwen  with 
4  Apsaras  singing.  Vihara  Plaosan  has  a  standing  Bodhisatva,  wearing 
trousers  and  anklets  ;  another  sitting,  with  a  coat  on  his  body.  Maitreya, 
one  wearing  trousers,  another  sitting  with  a  coat  on  his  body.  Maitreya, 
one  wearing  trousers,  another  sitting  cross-legged,  a  cross-legged  Tara, 
and  a  bronze  cro-s-legged  Sakti,  a  nude  bronze  Sakti,  with  one  leg  folded 
and  another  dangling  (now  in  Leiden),  bronz:;  Sakyamuni,  bronze  four- 
armed  Padmapani,  wearing  a  lungi  and  and  a  belt  (bronze  statues  no\v  in 
Leiden  Mt.  Tjandi  Banon.  Vishnu  standing  in  front  of  Garuda, 
bronze  four-armed  standing  Siva  (now  in  Hague),  five-faced  Brahma. 
Bagalen,  Dieng,  Wana  Saba  (Vana  Siva)  in  Buddhistic  pose,  4-armed 
Siva  (now  in  Batavia  M),  bronze  cross-legged  sitting  Amitabha  (now  in 
Leiden  ,  ten  armed  Durga  wearing  a  skirt,  belt  and  tight-fitting  bloues. 
Tjandi  Parikesit,  sitting  elephant-headed  fat-bellied  Ganesa,  bronze  ten- 
armed  standing  Durga  wearing  a  blouse  and  skirt,  putting  one  foot  'in 
Leiden  M;  on  buffalo  back,  bronze  Kala  Vairaba,  bronze-8-armed  Vajrapani 
(in  Batavia  M).  Ijandi  Singasari,  Vishnu  sitting  on  the  bird-headed  Garuda, 
at  whose  feet  birds  are  coiting,  a  prounching  bronze  Kamadeva  on 
a  lotus  blossom  in  mischivous  mood  (now  in  Leiden  ),  a 
bearded     Siva,   ten-armed     standing     Durga     wearing     an     ornamental 


MAn.\Y.\NA  =  HINDUISM  171 

la  Debased  Mahayana  (widened  vehicle  =■  wideness  of  outlook 
where  Buddha  is  the  First  Princij^le,  while  IIin;iyana  has 
the  narrow  outlook  of  self-realization  following  the  instructions 
of  Gotania  Buddha  as  a  historic  per.sonage  and  teacher, 
Buddhism  became  the  nexus  of  neo-IIinduism.  It  became 
hard  to  disentangle  one  from  the  other.  Af^ceticism  and  sen- 
suality were  cultivated  side  by  side.  Siva  became  gradually  a 
Buddha— Sogata  Mahesvara.  Each  fUiddha  had  his  own 
energizer  — iSflA;^j.  Thus  Adi  Buddha  had  his  Sakti  as  Prajna 
Paramita,  unbounded  wisdom,  in  the  beginning  simply  as  ai> 
ideological  conception. 

Siva  became  identified  with  Buddha.  Siva  was  worshipped 
as  Dhammaraja.  Buddha  thus  being  apotheosized  was  also 
regarded  as  an  incarnation  of  Indra- Vishnu,  Kahna  or  Krishna. 
So  Krishna  and  Buddha  became  merged  into  each  other  with 
Radha,  the  beloved  (Rv.  1,70,4,  X,  532  radem- lover  ;  Yas  9.2  j 
radem  =  lover)  Rati  ^Gk.  Erato)  as  his  soul  mate.  The 
nihilistic  theory  (sunyavada)  became  expressed  in  the  worship 
of  the  fossil'zsd  coiled  ammonite  stones,  found  in  Gandak 
valley.  Buddhism  has  not  been  banished.  It  has  been  only 
transformed  into  Hinduism.  Buddhist  Tara  (savioress)  is  the 
consort;  of  Siva  as  his  Sakti.  And  thus  neo-Hidnisra  found  its 
expression  in  Bengal,  Java,  Bali,  Campa  and  Kamboja  dena. 
Brahminism  was  for  aristocracy,  an  exclusive  privilege. 
Buddhism  preached  and  practised  socialism  of  plutocracy  for 
Varna  (colour  or  Lat  verna  slave)  Sankaras  =  colored  peoples 
or  freedmen,  enjoying  equal  rights  and  duties  for  all  alike 
without  any  distinction  of  birth,  color  or  social  rank. 

skirt  and  blouse  with  a  girdle,  holding  a  siiield  in  one  of  her  arms, 
setting  one  foot  on  the  head  of  a  crouching  buffalo,  the  other  foot  near 
the  tail  (now  in  Leiden  M),  S-armed  Durga  wearing  a  girdle  and 
necklaces,  8-armed  sitting  Bhrikuti.  bronze  8-armed  TarA,  cross-legged 
sitting  Prajna  Paramita  (now  in  Leiden  Ml,  Kediri  a  cross-legged  Huddha 
with  animated  bent  contemplative  face,  standing  Uma.  standing  "-'iva.  4- 
armed  Caturbhuja,  Vishnu  between  Laksmiand  Bhumidevi,  silting  Ganesa 
Ardhanari  (now  in  Leiden),  Trimurti.  At  Djokjakarta,  sitting  Brahma, 
bronze  8-armed,  3-faced  Trailakya  Vijaya,  standing  on  the  body  of  Siva. 
At  Begalen  cross-legged  sitting  Vishnu,  lO-armed  Durgi  wearing  skirt 
standing  on  a  crouching  buffalo,  Siva  and  crouching  Nandi  bulls. 
Tjandi  Bimbi,  Hari-Hara. 

Ablutomania  is  incessant  and  compulsive  washing  of  the  body. 
It  is  a  prominent  symptom  in  compulsive  obsessional  psychoneursis 
in  an  attempt  to  lessen  tension  arising  from  strong  guilt  feeling.  In 
sexual  union  with  a  female  devotee,  he  and  his  partner  would  become 
Buddha  and  Tara  (saviouress).  In  sexual  rites  of  Tantric  Buddhism, 
all  sexual  restrictions  were  uplifted,  and  even  incest  was  permitted,  for 
what  was  a  terrible  sin  to  the  ignorant  was  a  great  virtue  to  the  initiated. 
Adolescent      women      without      coitional      gratifications      wither  away 


172  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

-prematurely — Asamuhoge  jara  strinam  MBh  5.39  79.  Kuni  (kanya  = 
Zd  kanya  =  Gk  kainos  =  Russ  kuna,  kunka,  meaning  youthful  maiden, 
also  meaning  virgin  =  agra  =  Zd  aghru  =  Lat  virgo  =  Fr.  vierge)  remained 
unmarried  as  she  did  not  find  a  suitable  husband  of  her  liking.  By 
fastings  and  religious  devotions,  she  wrecked  her  health  ;  yet  finding  no 
contentment,  she  wanted  to  commit  suicide.  But  Narada  told  the 
famous  emaciated  virgin,  how  can  unmarried  girls  get  the  pleasures  of  the 
heaven  'asamskrtayah  Kanyayah  kuto  loka-stanaghe,  AIBh  Salya  52,  10 J. 
She  then  announced  :  whoever  will  marry  her,  I  shall  give  him  half  of 
my  possessions  ?  Srangavant  of  Galavas  accepted  the  offer  and  married 
her.  MBh  Salya  52.  Intersexual  spiritual  companionships— Tantricism 
— are  but  round  about  sublimated  ways  of  attaining  unions — temporary 
illusory  sabstitutes — when  the  imperious  demands  of  the  organisms  for 
intimate  sensuous  contacts  are  thwarted  by  social  conventions  and 
sexual  inhibitions.  Sudra  (Pali  Sudda  =  Chin  Chou)  Ugra  (Ugri  =  Ugrian) 
Mahapadma  Nandas  introduced  centralized  government,  uprooting  the 
feudal  system  (Matsya  P  272.).  Mauryas  reinforced  this  unitary 
procedure  of  administration  by  adopting  a  common  secular  civil  and 
criminal  Code  of  Laws  throuhout  the  empire,  replacing  ancient  religious 
injunctions,  controlling  the  economics  of  the  country  through  the 
state  management  of  mines,  industries  and  commerce,  custom  imports 
and  census,  levying  taxes  in  kind  on  agriculture  and  animal  production, 
thus  regulating  every  phase  of  the  citizen's  life,  through  an  elaborated 
■bureucratic  machinary  described  as  Kautilya's  Arthaskstra  in  322  B.  C. 
The  Chin  emperor  Slii-huangti  in  221  B.  C  replacing  the  Chous  (1100- 
221),  made  the  territorial  and  political  unification  of  China  by  destroying 
the  feudal  lords.  His  minister  LiSsu  standardized  laws,  regulations, 
measures,  weights,  even  written  characters  throughout  China.  In  213  he 
•even  ordered  the  destruction  of  the  classics  as  the  literati  was  attached 
to  the  traditions  of  the  past.  The  Hun  conquest  that  followed,  known 
as  the  Han  dynasty  (206  B.  C— 22i  A.  D.)  of  Lin  Pang  in  198  B.  C. 
adopted  the  same  unitary  system  of  government.  But  the  Sung  dynasty 
that  overthrew  the  Hun  domination  reversed  the  order  and  adopted 
the  Confusian  ethical  code.  We  find  the  same  cyclical  change  in  the 
Sunga  period.  Panchoo,  the  woman  legislator  of  the  Woman's  Guide 
enacted  3  obediences  and  4  virtues  of  women.  These  obediences  were  ; 
when  a  woman  is  in  her  maiden  home,  she  has  to  obey  her  father; 
when  married,  she  has  to  obey  her  husband  .•  when  her  husband  dies,  she 
obeys  her  son.  Manu  (9.3)  of  Senani  Pushyamitra  Sunga  (12.100)  says 
the  same  thing.  Father  protects  her  in  her  maidenhood  ;  husband  in 
her  youth  ;  son  in  her  old  age  ;  she  does  not  deserve  independence.  Sung 
scholars  imposed  a  secluded  life  on  woman  and  made  remarrying  of 
widows  a  moral  crime.  Worship  of  chastity,  which  they  highly  prized, 
became  something  of  a  psychological  obsession.  P.  132  Lin  Yutang — My 
Country  and  My  Poople.  Thus  other  Biddha==  Amitabha,  Manjusrsi, 
Maitreya,  Vajrapani,  Vairocaca  and  Amoghasiddhi,  had  their  own  Sakti 
as  Tara,  Svarasvati,  Marici,  Vajrajogini,  Bhagavati,  Hariti  and  Candi. 
In  the  beginning  every  monk  had  a  nun  as  his  soul  comrade  to  test 
his  power  of  self-control  (in  medieval  Europe  even  the  monks  used  to 
lie  on  the  same  bed  with  the  nun  and  to  bear  many  other  provocative 
temptations)  .  Later  each  monk  had  a  nun  as  his  body  mate  to  study 
and    cultivate  physiology — Kaya     Sadhana,   seduction   of    women  =  nari 


VAJRAY.lNA  173 

Sadhana,  sensuality  =  indriya  luta,  and  sexual  unions  ~deha  yon;a.  And 
they  began  to  proclaim— there  is  no  hi^lier  virtue  than  joy  in  life,  and 
no  worse  sin  than  suffcrini*  privati  )ns  of  unfuliilled  natural  urpcs.  The 
Body  is  the  fountain  of  all  Bliss.  Gandharva  is  the  embodiment  of  m.ile 
libido,  Pancavsmsa  Br  9,3.1,  .MajjSiima  .Mikaya  1.265-265  -  Vajrap.ni. 
A  (withoutj-psara  (shame),  apsara,  embjdiment  of  female  libido -TAri. 
Acarya  Jinasenai  :  "If  God  created  the  universe  where  was  lie  before 
creating  it.  If  he  was  in  space  where  did  he  localize  the  universe  ?  How 
could  a  formless  and  immaterial  substance  like  God  create  the  world 
of  matter  ?  If  the  material  is  taken  as  existing,  why  not  take  the  world 
unbegun.  If  the  creator  was  uncreated,  why  not  suppjse  the  world  to 
be  itsilf  self-existing.  If  Gjd  is  self  sufficient,  he  need  not  have  created 
the  world.  It  not  he  would  be  incapable  of  the  task  ;  if  the  creation 
is  the  mere  play  of  his  will,  it  would  be  cliildish;  if  out  of  his  benevolence, 
why   he   has    brought    in    existence  so    much  misery"  ? 

"If  the  b.ithing  is  a  virtuous  act,  then  the  fishes  are  the  most  pious 
spirits.  If  nudity  gives  salvation,  dogs  and  jackals  have  got  it  ;  if 
pulling  out  hair  out  of  the  body,  then  why  not  enjoy  the  depilated 
vulva  of  an  adolescent  woman  as  the  fountain  of  heavenly  bliss*'. — 
Sarahapada  =  Siddha  Rahula  Bhadra  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of 
Candra  Pal  and  became  the  high  pri»^st  of  Nalanda.  Vajrayans  preached 
that  by  some  herbal  applications  they  could  make  /'«;OTJrt  — penes— ,  the 
object  of  their  adoration— sadhana — the  source  of  joy  and  creation,  as 
hard  as  vajra=''Y'\h.  Dor  ge  =  thunderbolt.  Cakrayans  sitting  nude 
in  pairs  in  their  magic  clandestine  phallic  circles,  regarded  their 
comrade  as  god  or  goddess,  enjoying  ihe  dalliances  of  sensuality  without 
the  risk  of  parenthood,  regarding  her  breasts  as  divine  cymbols  to 
clasp  for  ringing  her  axillary  hairs  as  scented  TuUisis,  her  dark  triangular 
pubes  (vedika),  the  celestial  garden  iNandana  Kanana)  where  blooms 
every  month  the  red  rose  rakta  Java);  Do\a  =•  Afudana  chatra  (clitoris) 
is,  the  temple  gong  ;  the  vulva  [iilva)  is  the  vestibule  {alinda)  to  the 
temple  of  Vagesvari  (vagina),  and  the  vagina  is  the  guardian  in  the 
antechamber  of  Mattika  (the  matrix)  ;  if  the  vajra  (glans  penis) 
plucks  the  Rakta  /avk  by  entering  the  corridors  of  the  Va,^esvari,  still 
the  Rakta  J.iv%  does  not  fail  to  bloom  again  and  again  in  time,  (That 
is  coitions  during  menstrual  period  can  not  bring  out  pregnancy). 
Tantras  are  the  esoteric  means  by  which  the  Prijnopaya  can  enjoy  the 
five  objects  of  enjoyment — panca  kama  gunas  and  get  divine  ecstacies 
of  the  union.  Hatayogi  Siddha  (expert)  wrote  Sri  Kala  Cakra  Tantra,  in 
956  at  Vikramasila.  Adolescent  men  and  woman,  though  well-formed 
and  fully  grown  up,  find  themselves  psychically  and  physically  incomplete 
by  themselves  They  are  but  halves  and  each  of  these  halves  is  restless 
in  perpetual  quest  to  obtain  his  or  her  basic  complement— love-yearning 
— which  can  only  be  appeased  when  a  true  mate  has  been  found  in 
whose  conjugal  union,  halves  can  form  into  a  harmonious  whole-— 
Ardha-  n%risvara.  In  Jnanasuddhi,  a  treatise  on  Vajra-yanas,  it  is 
mentioned  that  the  enjoyment  of  fish  (matsya),  meat  'mamsai.  wine 
(mada),  female  sexual  organ  (mudra)  and  sexual  intercourse  (maithuna) 
with  a  passionate  maiden— bhavini  riramsu— under  the  instructions  of 
a  connoisseur  (giini  =  G\i.  geras,  a  mark  of  distinction  and  honor)  are 
excellent  spritualizing  exercises  to  the  attainment  of  Great  Delight 
(maha   sukha  •=  sukshiti— heavenly   abode— Yas    29.     10    huseites),  which 


174  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT   INDIA. 

without  this  initiation  would  rather  lead  the  votary  to  perdition. 
Great  delight  springs  up  in  the  embrace  and  union  (Tib.  yab-yum)  of  a 
■loving  pair  who  regard  each  other  as  divine  (Mahasukha  Prakasa  of 
Advarya  Vajra).  This  injunction  abounds  in  later  Tantra  literature. 
But  in  Yogini  Tantra  Ch  6  Matsya  (Zd  masya)  may  be  substituted  by 
brinjah,  mamsa  (  Lat.  mensa  =  Fr  mets  =  Eng  meat  =  Let,  Lith,  Russ. 
mesa  =  Goth  Mim  z  =  Slav  mezira)  by  salts,  ginger,  assafaetida,  wheat, 
beans  or  onions,  all  regarded  as  stimulants),  mudris  ^closed  hand  with 
the  thumb  thrust  between  the  forefinger  and  the  middle  finger  for  sexual 
union!  by  sweatened  pupped  nee,  mada  (mead  or  liquor)  by  fermented 
cocoanut  water  in  a  copper  cup  or  by  vijaya — Cannaois  indica  resinous 
drinks  ,  maithuna  by  linga-yoni  symbols  as  transposed  male  and  female 
pubic  triangles  in  magic  phallic  circles  (cakra).  For  culture  (samskriti) 
consists  in  controlling  our  inborn  instincts  and  wild  passions  by  intellect. 
The  comradery  of  man  and  woman  is  needed  to  test  their  ability  of 
self-control — atma-samyama— the  key  to  self  realization.  Mental 
faculties  (manas)  suffer  most  from  venereal  excesses.  Sensualists  suffer 
from  aboulia — the  inability  to  concentrate  their  mind  on  any  subj-ct. 
The  phallus  cult  embodied  in  Linga  and  Yoni  are  connected  with 
fetichistic  ideas,  exercising  on  her  or  him  a  hypnotizing  magical 
fascinating  influence.  In  Jnanarnava  Tantra.  Yoni  and  Sankha  Mu  iras 
symbolized  Muladhara-Muliebria  ;  Kurma,  Dhenu,  Anku3a  =  erect 
phallus  ;  avagunthana  and  sannirodhini  mudras  symbolized  preliminary 
caresses  such  as  embraces,  pressured  kissings,  pressing  the  bosoms  — 
alingana.  gada  cumbana,  stana-mardana),  coitus  with  violent  m.ovements 
and  simultaneous  orgasms  of  both.  Tantras  also  taught  self  control 
(samyama)  in  the  presence  of  a  nude  voluptuous  young  woman,  even 
while  rubbing  her  vulva  with  fingers,  titilaling  or  licking  her  clitoris 
{Yoni^bhaga  pmmathana,  bhogalinga  /d/^£Z«a  =  cunnilingus),  tasting 
or  smelling  the  adherent  smegma  of  the  clitoris  {bhaga-linga  amritd)^ 
or  even  Eceing  her  copulating  with  another  man  (nagnan  pararatam 
pasya'm  =  mixoscopial.  defloration  of  a  virgin  (akshata  sayambhu 
kusuma),  contraceptional  coitus  through  viryastambhana— coitus 
reservatus  or  copulating  a  menstruating  woman— rajasvaU  bhage  or 
friction  of  the  penis  on  the  vaginal  corridor— coitus  orovaginal 
{bhaga-mandira  dvara  udghatana)  ;  sexual  unions  in  reverse 
postures  -viparita  rata  )  and  orgastic  coitus  {reta  ahhisheka). 
In  Sri  Guhya  Samaja  Tantra,  a  pretty  maiden  of  16  (sorashi)  is  Prajna. 
In  Hevajra  T.  a  female  is  called  Prajna  and  the  male  upaya  =  Sadhana 
(yoshat  tavat  bhavet  Prajna  upayat  upayah  purusha  smritah).  She  is 
epitome  of  the  Earth  Mother— even  the  universe.  She  is  the  Vija  Mudra 
(woman  with  raga  =  intense  emotional  attachment;  selected  for 
Sadhana  ;  Mudra  =  female  organ  ;  Maha-Mudra  =  Vajra  Kanya,  a  young 
thick  thighed,  broad-hipped,  very  slender-waisted,  and  high-breasted,  wide 
bright- eyed  woman,  sexually  excited  with  erect  ctitoris  ;  she  is  riransu 
riramayishu  ;  in  the  wanton  sexuals  port  she  gets  and  gives  intense  volup- 
tuous gratification.  Knowing  her  one  realizes  every  wish  of  his  She  is  the 
Sukhavnti,  the  pleasure-giving  heaven  Her  fneni-danda  =  ratdi\i\di.  oblongata 
is  the  Mt  Meru  which  supports  her  body  framewoak.  On  her  head,  axillae 
and  pubis  grow  scented  herbs  in  the  shape  of  hairs.  On  her  fertile  odorifer- 
ous irrigated  canal  (sambhidha)  blooms  every  month  Rakta  Java  =  red 
flower.     Her  ogling  oeillade   gives   the  glimmer   of  hope.     The  embrace 


VAJRAYANl  175 

of  her  extended  arms  has  dilii^hiful  touch.  Her  warm  pulsating  firm 
globular  breasts  are  the  chalices  of  ambrosia.  The  voice  of  her  soft 
lips  is  the  melodious  G'lth-i  Mantra.  Tlirough  K  ima-K:il;i-Vi!asha  — 
sensuous  enjoyments  of  Paiica  Klma-gunas— five  scnsc  organs  of  sight, 
sound,  smell,  taste  and  touch,  through  intensitication  of  their  co  ordi- 
nating  organ  munas.  she  transforms  physical  tension  into  self-foriictiing 
delightful  estacies.  For  this  reason  the  male  organ  is  called  lihagavan 
and  Bhaga. — Su-bhaga  =  Rom.  Subigus.  the  female  organ  is  called 
Prajn\,  tue  source  of  knowledge  and  salvation  (Sukra  k'ro  bhavet 
Bhagagavan.  tat-sukham  klmini  smritam.)  Hut  it  is  more  beneficial  for 
Sldhaka  instead  of  discharging  the  semen  (coitus  reservatus'  to  retain 
by  inhaling  a  deep  breath  and  not  exhaling  it  (aprma).  thus  restraining 
the  orgastic  discharge  by  controlling  Manipura  cakra— lumbar  plexus) 
and  with  it  irrigating  and  invigorating  the  lotus  of  the  brain— usnisa 
Kamala  =  sahasrara  padina  =  brain  with  its  thousands  of  cerebral  folds. 
MuHdhira  Cakra  =  Kula  Kundalini  Sakti  =  ovaries  ;  purna  chandra  nadi, 
syanda  =  Bartholin's  glinds  ;  uppasta,  vedika,  bhagapitha  =  monsvencris  ; 
dola.  sisnika  =  prepuce  of  clitoris  ;  bhaga  linga,  nas.'i,  chatra,  gula,  ?ismik& 
mani=clitoris.  But  a  virile  woman  with  hairs  on  the  chin  =  rishavi  is 
an  undisirable  medium. 

Tantra  or  Hata  Yoga  consists  of  the  control  of  usually  involun- 
tary functionings.  Years  are  spent  in  practising  system  of  conditioning 
reflexes  and  responses  whereaby  pulse  rate,  breathing,  digestion, 
metabolism,  sensibility,  sexual  activity  are  brought  under  consious 
control.  Heart  beat  can  be  slowed  and  attenuated  to  a  vanishing  point, 
the  temperature  reduced,  breathing  becomes  imperceptible,  and  the  whole 
organism  is  leduced  to  state  of  hibernity  as  to  be  buried  alive  for 
days  by  adepts.  The  sympathetic  nervous  system  causes  indirectly  local 
activity,  producing  pallor  or  flushing  at  will,  thus  sitting  on  sharp 
nailed  bed  without  feeling  pain,  and  bleeding  may  be  stopped.  The 
pupils  of  the  eyes  may  be  dilated  or  constricted  so  that  visual 
impression  becomes  inordinately  brilliant  out  of  focus  or  dim  and 
sharp.  Large  quantititics  of  meat  or  sweets  may  be  taken  and  digested 
by  increased  secretions  of  pepsin  or  insulin  at  will  without  feeling  any 
discomforts.  Pints  of  strong  alcoholic  drinks  may  be  drunk  without 
showing  any  symptom  of  intoxication  ;  yet  exhibiting  alcoholism  by 
drinking  simply  cocoanut  water  with  sweets  by  provoking  their  fermen- 
tation in  the  stomach.  Body  temperature  may  be  lowered  as  to  hold 
fireballs  on  the  palms  of  the  hands  or  walk  barefooted  on  fire  pits  ;  or 
raised  to  perspire  freely  in  coldest  winter.  There  may  be  no  sexual 
response  and  the  penis  may  remain  inert  and  passive  even  in  most 
intimate  contact  with  a  seductive  passionte  beauty  ;  yet  copulating 
vigorusly  with  a  crone  who  lies  like  a  log  or  with  a  numuber  of  women 
successively  for  hours  either  without  any  seminal  discharge  or  copious 
discharges  without  showing  any  weakness  in  erection  or  fatigue. 

Vajra-Sattva  is  in  sexual  union,  touching  all  points  of  contact,  with 
Vajra-varahi  =  Prajna.  Heruka  is  filled  with  erotic  passion  Srinagara- 
rasa  samanvitam  i  for  Vajra-vairacani.  Sukhavati  is  the  female  sexual  organ 
in  which  intense  pleasure — Maha-Sukha — can  be  obtained.  'I  am  Buddha 
and  I  have  perfect  knowledge  of  things.  I  dwell  in  the  Sukhavati  {vagina  in 
the  shape  of  q  (upper  part  as  uterus  and  lower  part  a  sloping  vagina) 
and   abode   of  the   Buddha   Jewel    (clitoris)  of  Sad-Vajra   woman  (  right 


176  THE  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

type  of  sexy  woman  whose  vagina  is  tense  with  excitment  -raga — clitoris 
erect  =  riramsubhavini)  as  pleasure  giving  and  semen  produced  organ 
(Vajra  Sattva  =  erect  penis  :  JBuddham  vastu  bodhanat.  Sad-vajra  yoshit 
bhage  ekarj.di  rupe  tu  Buddha  ratna  karandake  sukh-vatyam  sukra- 
namna  vyavasthitha).  Rakta  Padma  (lotus)  ulva  =  vulva.  Nirmana  =  repro- 
ductive centres  are  near  the  sex  organs  (ovaries  and  testes).  But  Sarabhoga 
and  Maha-8ukha  (orgastic  and  pleasure  sensations)  centres  are  in 
the  cerebral  organ  (Sambhoga  cakram  oa  maha-sukha  sirasi 
sthitham). — He-Vajra  Tanfcra.  "in  the  union  with  a  beloved  mate 
one  becomes  whole  and  complete — Sata  Path  Br.  x,  5  2.8."  "As  the 
tree  is  claspad  closely  by  a  creeper,  so  do  thou  embrace  me — Yatha 
vriksham  lijuva  samantam  parishvajase  eva  parishajasa  mam — 
Av.  6.8.1.''  Standing  Mithuna,,  Davi  Jagadamba  Temple  ;  sitting 
Mithuna,  Visvanatha  Temple,  Khajuraba. 

Struggle  strengthens  man's  physical  and  moral  caliber,  and 
develops  his  resourcefulness  and  inventing  genius  to  ovecome 
obstacles.  Where  there  is  no  struggle,  ease  and  comforts  lead  to 
his  all-round  degeneration.  The  thunder-wielding  warrior  god  of 
the  Arya — Indra  became  the  chief  overlord  ot  the  sensual  heaven, 
surrounded  by  leud  seductive  singing  and  dancing  girls — Apsaras — a 
(without)  — spara  (shame),  personfication  of  female  libido  who  became 
his  armed  instruments  to  seduce  saints,  and  he  only  busied  himself 
to  seduce  other  men's  wives- 
Eroticism  as  an  art  was  cultivated  even  in  Vedic  times.  Indrani 
without  prudery  frankly  boasts  :  No  other  woman  has  such  an 
excellent  vulva  {Bu-bhasad=RusB.  Lith.  pizda)  like  mine  ;  nor  khows 
to  copulate  so  well  (su-yasu)  like  me  ;  nor  can  press  closer  (praticya- 
viyas  by  vaginal  muscular  contraction^  nor  can  raise  so  high 
(udami  yasi)  the  pubis  (sakthi  against  the  penis  in  copulatory 
movements  of  ups  and  downs  to  enhance  mutual  orgasm). — Bv.  x, 
86.6.  Na  mat  stri  subhasattar^  na  su  yasutara  bhuvac  na  mat 
praticyaviyasi  na  saktby  udyamiyasT,  "Cover  me  in  crouching 
posture  (upopa)  with  tightening  pressure  (paramrisa)  by  holding 
the  nape  of  my  neck  (manyathah  with  your  hand)  ;  all  over  (my 
vulva)  is  hairy  (romasha  =  Per3,  romah  =  Lat.  coma  =  Gk.  comae  = 
long  hair  ;  long  luxuriant  pubic  and  axial  hairy  growth  is  associated 
with  hyperfunctioning  of  adrenal  cortex  and  ovaries)  like  an  ewe  ^avika 
=  Fr.  evier  =  Lith.  avis)  of  Gandhari  Ev.  1.  126.7.  upopa  me  para 
mrisha  ma  rne  dahhrani  manyathah/Sarvaham  asmi  romasha 
Qandharinam  ivavika.  Babhravya  her  vartxi  (Beng.  bhatar  =  Pali. 
bhattar  =  Lat.  fututor  =  Fr.  fouteur)  says  :  Healthy  (agadhita), 
very  healthy  this  Kasika  (Kusika  woman)  holding  (my  waist)  by 
her  legs  (jangha)  is  giving  me  hundreds  of  intense  coital  enjoyments 
(yasuman  bhojya),  with  orgastic  discharges  (yaduri).  Ev.  1,  126  6^ 
AgadhitS  qarigadhita)  ya  Kasikeva  jangahe  dadati  mahyam  ya  dun 
yasunam  bhojya  sata. 

Kundalini=  Vagus  nervous  system;  Pra.na  =  life-Sustaining 
oxygen;  udana=light  upward-moving  hydrogen;  Apana  =  heavy 
downward-moving  carbonic  acid  gas.  Satya  =  positive,  Tama  = 
negative.  Raja  =  potential  electricity. 


CONTBAOBPTIVE  MEASUUK  IN  RIKVEDA  177 

Dharma  is  mind  unconditioned.  Samhhoga  la  characteristic  by 
reciprocal  enjoyment.  Ntrinaiia.  is  that  which  is  variously  created. 
Sabhavika  is  that  which  is  innate  in  every  being.  In  tho  east  of 
the  circle  is  Vairooa,ua  as  form  ;  in  the  west  Amitabha  as  perception  ; 
in  the  north, — Amogasiddhi  as  impulses  }  in  the  south  Katna 
Sambhava  as  feelings  ;  between  east  and  north  is  Tarini  as  air  ; 
betweon  north  and  west  Pandarvii  as  fish  ;  between  west  and 
south  M^tari "» water  ;  south  and  oast  Locana  =  earth  ;  in  the 
centre  of  the  circle  is  Akhobhya  — Conciousness.  These  four  are 
16  years  old,  endowed  with  uncommon  loveliness  and  youth  so  that 
they  are  beauty  herself.  Like  the  Buddhas,  they  are  possessed  of 
the  essences  of  4  Baddha  bodies  ;  they  are  ravishing  to  the  mind, 
the  repository  of  all  the  qualities  of  all  the  Buddhas  and  of  the 
very  nature  of  5  Tatbagatas.  In  the  midst  is  the  Nayik^,  the 
essence  of  all.  She  possesses  the  true  nature  of  Vajrasattva  and  is 
the  queen  of  the  vajra  realm.  She  is  known  as  the  Lady,  and  as 
such  is  perfection  of  wisdom  and  reality. — Advayavajra  Samrjrahc. 

Membrum  virile  {9epo  =  Lat.  sopio,    cipus)    finds    pleasure    in    tho 
hairy      cleft      (veda  =  Lat.    fondo  =  Fr.     fente.     Rv.    9,    112.4.     8epo 
romauvantau  bhedau    sukham  ratham — Of  all  pleasant  things,  cunnus 
is      the      most     pleasant.-  Rv.  x,    123.5.       Priyasya    yonishu    priya. 
When  father    in     tho    libidinous    passionate    urge  (abhike    kamman 
krenavane)  was  performing  his  activities  with  his  youthful  (yuvatyam 
=  daughter),  the  discharging    semen  (mananag    reto)    was     made    to 
sprinkle  on  the  crest    (sanu)   of    the    mons    veneris  (sukrita  =  elevated 
place  =  vaulted  vulva)  of   the    cunnus    (yoni  =  Gk   gyne)    Rv.    X|    63,6. 
Anticonceptional  measure  as  observed  by  Onan  in  the    Bible,     spilling 
the    sperm  outside.    Madhya   yat     kartvam    abhavad    abhike    kamain 
krinvane    pitari     yuvatyam     mananag     reto    jahatur    viyanta    sanau 
nisbiktam     sukritasya    yonau.       When    father    covered  his    daughter 
in  copulation  (adhishkan),    the    discharging    semen    (kshmaya   retah) 
in  mutual  orgasm  (samjagmano)  flowed  inside    (ni=Zd.  ni=Gk.  eni  = 
Slav.     ni-zu  =  Ger.     ni-dar="  beneath,    within)    shincat)  ;    clever    gods 
generated  from  this  (pregnancy)  Brahman  (prayers  =  wishful  longings) 
and  vashtosh  patim    (dwelling    home)   for   the  fulfillment    of   desires. 
Rv.  X,     61.7.      With    children,    home    and    settled    life   begin.     Pita 
yat  svam  duhitaram  adhishkan  ksbmay'"!  retah  samjagmano    nishincat 
svadhyo,     janayan      brahma     deva    Vashtosh    patim    bratapam    nir 
atakshan.     "Wife  is  indeed  the  home,    for,    she  has    the    yoni    (which 
produces       progeny)  =  Jayed       (jaya  =  Zd.     azya  =  Gk     gyne™  NPers. 
zayad  ;    jayati  =janayati  ^generatrice  id  =  indeed)  astam   (Zd.    asta=" 
no3to9  =  nest)  sed    (sa=she,   id,  u  =  the)  yonis  (Zd.  yaonim  =  Gk  gyne. 
Lat.  cunnus)  tad  (that) — Rv,  3,53.4. 

Gwrws  taught  how  to  regulate  the  erotic  plexuses  — ida,  pingala 
and  sushamna  by  making  the  nerve  currents — lalana,  rasana  and 
avadhuti — flowing  upwards  ',  they  could  even  rouse  the  dormant 
(Kundalini«=Tam.  Kunalai  =  coiled)  libido  (Kula-Kundolini  Sakti  = 
muladhara  cakra  =  ovaries).  Avadhuta-margis  "=Sahajiya  =Kaulas  =■ 
Nathapantbi8  =  Kapalika8  and  allied  sects  sought  pleasures  of  life  with 
alternate    asceticism    to    enhance    their   libido.  Matsyendra    Natha** 

12 


178  THB  LITERARY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

Mina  Natha  of  Candradvipa  was  fond  of  fish  and  women,  and  to  him 
Hata  Yoga  is  abtributed.  His  disciple  was  Gore-ksha  Natha  of 
Jalandhara  and  whose  activities  and  of  the  Nathapanthis  are 
described  in  Goraksha  Vijiya  in  which  it  is  mentioned  that  Goraksha 
Nath  established  the  Kalighata  and  the  Kali  temple.  Goraksha 
Natha  was  the  Guru  pf  Mayanamati  =  Madanavati  of  Patiker.  Manik- 
chandra  of  Tripura  married  Mayanamati.  Manikcbandra  married  four 
other  wives  and  had  180  concubines  Madanamati  became  jealous 
and  with  the  instigation  of  her  lover  Jaladhara  Pada  =  Hari  Siddha, 
a  disciple  of  Gorakhsha  and  a  local  sweeper,  poisoned  and  killed 
her  husband,  and  became  the  regent.  She  was  pregnant  at  this  time 
and  gave  birth  to  a  son  Gopicand  =GoviDdra  Chandra.  When 
Gopicand  became  18  and  married  Aduna,  the  pretty  princess  of 
Savar  king  Harishcandra,  near  Dacca,  and  also  got  Paduna,  her 
sister  as  a  dowry,  Now  Gopicand  claimed  the  throne.  But  his 
mother  asked  him  to  renounce  his  throne  and  wives  and  to  wander 
abroad  as  a  Vikshu  in  order  to  avert  premature  death  which  was 
prophesied  by  Hari  Siddha.  Gopicand  protested.  He  said  that 
Hari  Siddha  was  no  saint.  He  was  but  a  local  sweeper,  and 
because  his  mother  was  in  love  with  him,  in  order  to  raise  his  prestige 
and  power  called  him  a  saint.  He  accused  them  both  of  poisoning 
his  father  and  killing  him  in  order  to  rule  his  kingdom,  and  as  he 
was  claiming  to  rule,  they  were  conspiring  to  deprive  him  of  his 
rights.  Aduna  and  Paduna  supported  their  husband's  claim,  but 
all  in  vain.  Gopicand  was  forced  to  be  a  disciple  of  Hari  Siddha 
and  leave  home.  After  12  years  of  wandering,  Gopicand  returned 
home  and  regained  his  throne.  lu  Goraksha  Vijaya,  it  is  mentioned  to 
Kanu-pa  =  Krishnacarya  Pada,  the  author  of  He-vajra  Panjika,  that 
Hari  Siddha  surprised  in  flagrante  delicto  with  Mayanamati  was 
put  into  prison.  It  is  also  mentioned  in  Goraksha  Vijaya  that 
Parvati  being  propitiated  by  Hari  Siddha  said  to  him  :  Go  to 
Meherkula.  There  the  queen  Mayanamati  is  alluring  like  me. 
With  her  amours,  she  will  bless  your  life.  Govindacandra  was 
defeated  by  Eajendra  CholaClOll — 1023).  Yoga  Ratna  Mala  in  the  39th 
year  of  Govinda  Pal  is  ascribed    to  Sri  Krebna  Pada  =  Kahna. 

Dharmapal  II  had  sent  Karnasen  of  Mainagad  in  Tamluk  to 
suppress  the  rebellion  of  Ishai  Ghosh  of  Dhekur  on  the  Ajaya  in 
Bankura  Dt.  Karnasen  lost  all  his  four  sons  in  fighting  with  Ishai 
Ghosh.  Karnasen's  wife  died  in  grief.  Dharma  Pal  gave  Ranjavati, 
his  queen  Vanumati's  sister,  in  marriage  with  Karnasen,  even 
against  the  wish  of  her  brother  Mahudya  who  was  his  commander- 
in-chief  and  premier,  Lausen  was  the  son  of  Binjavati.  Dharma  Pal 
sent  Lausen  to  punish  Haripal  who  had  refused  to  marry  his 
daughter  Kanera.  But  the  army  was  led  by  the  princess  Kanera 
herself.  And  there  was  an  encounter  between  Kanera  and  Lausen 
and  they  fell  into  love  with  each  other,  and  D.narmapal  gave  his 
consent  for  them  to  marry.  This  angered  her  maternal  uncle  and 
prime  minister  Mahudya.  To  get  rid  of  Lausen,  Mahudya  asked 
Dharma  Pal  to  send  Lausen  in  an  expedition  against  Hakanda,  In 
the   meantime  in    Lausen's    absence,    Mahudya    attacked    Mainagad, 


EQUALITY  OP  MKN  AND  WOMEN  179 

Lauaen's  ancestral  place.     The  capital  of  Pala  kingdom  waa  at  Ramati 
=  Ramavati  as  mentioned  in  an  inscription  of  Madana  Pal. 

Ghanta  =  Ram  (25.  G'i)  mahasvara.  The  Chinese  borrowed 
Gong  from  Gk.  eoheion.  Echeion  was  used  by  the  Greeks  for  the 
interpretation  of  the  thunder  efifect  on  the  stage  as  in  Eleuainian 
mysteries       Gk    echos  stands  for  a  sound  instrument  from  a  metal. 

Asanga's  Yogacara  =  Vijnanavada  conceives  the  ultimate 
unknowable  as  an  ineffable  reality.  Madhyamika  of  Naf^ar- 
juna  of  Ind  century  teaches  all  is  unreal  except  one  Great 
Reality  of  which  one  cannot  predicate  existence  or  non-existence, 
•=  agnosticism.  Prajna  =  Panua  is  the  intuitive  transcendental 
knowledge  as  contrasted  with  the  plodding  discursive  intellectual 
mysticism.  Madhyamika  is  the  middle  path  between  Nihilism 
and  Realism.  Metempsychosis — transmigration  of  self— atman 
(Rv.  X,  16'3)  is  the  reindividuation,  continuous  ever-changing 
stream  of  consciousness  like  a  film  which  has  many  changes 
yet  keeping  unity.  Buddha  is  one  who  has  snapped  the  fetters 
of  ignorance,  pride,  egoism,  lust,  hatred,  and  falsehood  (Kv. 
methate,  1,113.3=  Skt.  mithya  =  Yas  31,12  maetha).  Vice  brings 
unhappiness  as  the  shadow  follows  the  body.  Virtue  is  it3 
own  reward  by  bringing  mental  poise.  Happiness  is  the  bloom 
of  virtue.  Altruism  is  enlightened  Egoism.  Libido  is  the 
universal  law  of  life.  Morality  is  the  guidance  of  instincts  by 
intellect.  Intellect  ijiikna)  is  largely  a  product  of  individual 
nisus  and  experience,  but  instinct  (2>ravirti)  and  impulses 
(prerana  and  kvega)  which  are  deeper  and  larger  are  biotic, 
representing  the  species.  NirvaDia  is  freedom  from  worldly 
cares  which  gives  supreme  Bliss.  Freedom  from  violence  is 
Ahimsa,  •  from  want,  Ashya.  ;  from  exploitation  Aparigrah  ; 
from  violation  or  dishonor  Avyabhica,ra  ;  from  disease,  Arogija  • 
from  early  death  AmHtva  ;  from  malice  and  anger,  Akrodha  j 
freedom  of  thought  =  Satya  =  sunriti  ;  love,  sympathy  -  Maitreya. 

Soma  believed  in  the  equal  capacity  of  women  and  men  iu 
the  achievement  of  ideals  and  enjoyments  of  life,  transcending  sex. 
In  higher  spheres  of  life,  personality  counts,  and  Dot  sex.  Woman's 
nature  signifies  that  her  emotional  excitemont  is  intense  ;  and  if 
mind  is  firmly  set,  she  by  her  intuitive  sense  rightly  comprehends 
the  norm.  Then  the  question  does  not  arise,  am  I  a  woman  or 
a  man  (Samyutta  Nikaya  5,  2).  "How  should  woman's  nature 
hinder  us  when  hearts  are  firmly  set,  when  mind  moves  with 
growing  knowledge  towards  the  right  path  of  love.  With  ideal  of 
love  and  sympathy,  the  gloom  of  ignorance  vanishes  (Theri  Gatha 
36)."  ''Soma  twigs  pressed  between  stones,  filtered,  mixed  with 
milk,  sour  milk,  honey  or  fermented  cooked  rice  or  barley  broth 
(Kanji)  was  a  medicine  of  the  sick,  an  invigorating  drink  for  the 
strong — Rv.  8,  61.  17.  Haomo.  the  health-giving  and  invogorating 
herb  was  brought  from  Karaite  (Mt  Elburz) — Ya%na  X,  10 — 11.  It 
gives  a  sense  of  sexual  power  and  ability  [Yasyia  X,  13)  and  it  was 
once    banned  as  inspiring   orgies  [Yasna  32,   11,   48.  10).     Sahajiayas 


180  THE  LITEEART  HISTORY  OF  ANCIENT  INDIA 

preached  and  practised  that  erotic  gratifications  and  sexual  unions 
are  the  easy  and  pleasant  ways  of  tasting  joy  of  life  by  relieving 
the  sexual  nervous  tensions  which  is  normal  in  all  healthy  creatures 
as  hunger  and  thirst.  Hunger  causes  us  to  supply  a  certain 
amount  of  nutrition  which  the  body  needs.  The  function  of  every 
instinct  and  bodily  organ  is  to  satisfy  a  particular  need  of  the 
organism.  Appetite  may  be  stimulated  by  the  sight  of  attractive 
food,  irrespective  of  its  nutritive  quantitive  and  qualitive  value. 
But  appetite  gives  flavor  to  the  hunger.  The  regular  normal 
exercise  of  our  bodily  organs  and  the  gratification  of  our  instinc- 
tive urges  are  accompanied  by  pleasurable  sensations  and  relief. 
In  the  proper  and  timely  functioning  of  every  organ  of  the  body, 
there  is  healthy  joy  of  living  ;  but  if  it  is  prevented  or  repressed, 
it  may  disturb  the  entire  mechanism.  Love  stirs  up  emotions  to 
their  profoundest  depth.  Though  amorous  ecstacies  are  but  monaen- 
tary  nervous  exaltations  and  are  short-lived,  their  reverberations 
€cho  and  reecho  in  the  sub-conscious  psychic  recesses  as  long  as 
life  lasts,  and  they  contain  the  seeds  of  eternity. 

As  hunger  and  thirst  can  only  be  relieved  by  food  and  drinks, 
and  controlling  them  means  only  passive  resignation  to  death 
with  deepened  subconscious  yearning  to  secure  them,  and  mind 
is  never  free  from  their  obsession.  But  when  one  bas  sufficient  food 
and  drinks,  he  craves  no  more  of  them.  So  normal  erotic  cravings 
can  only  be  satisfied  by  their  indulgence,  and  not  by  their 
deprivation  which  simply  intensifies  or  diverts  the  cravings  into 
abnormal  channels.  Then  Nivritti  comes  with  its  satiation  and 
mind  can  be  directed  into  devotional  ecstacies.  With  this 
Mahayana  Tantric  Hinduism  —  Sahajia,  Kisori  Bhajan — eroticism 
was  indissolubly  mixed  with  mysticism.  Tbus  Candi  became  the 
nude  fertility  goddess  of  the  Oraons.  At  midnight  a  nude  Oraon 
unmarried  priest  worships  ber,  as  the  Savaras  worshipped  leaf- 
wearing  Parna-Savari.  The  copulating  (ramati  =  Zd  ramyat  ; 
rama,  raman=Gk  erema  =  0s8et  oroman)  pairs  were  represented 
in  the  images  of  Uma-Mahesvara  and  Ardha-Narisvara.  A  circum- 
cized  steatite    Linga  has  been  found  at  Hurilihalu,  Madras  Museum. 

Eaigas  regard  woman's  menses  as  her  red  Sower.  Just  as  the 
mango  and  other  trees  flower  before  bearing  fruits  so  does  a  woman 
give  red  flower  before  she  bears  a  child,  Unless  amours  of  married 
women  led  to  pregnancy,  adultery  was  not  regarded  as  a  serious 
offence  against  morals  by  Yajnavalkya  1.  3,  72  :  vyabhicarad  yitau 
euddhih  =  womac    is  purified  by  her  next  menses. 

Ancient  peoples  like  the  present  day  primitives  believed  that 
every  natural  phenomenon  was  the  resultant  expression  of  benevo- 
lent or  malignant  spirits.  Good  things  in  nature  aud  life  are 
obtained  through  the  blessings  of  good  gods,  and  bad  things  when 
they  become  augry  or  provoked  through  negligence  as  mentioned 
in  Egyptian,  Babylonian,  Vendidad  (jahi  =»yosha)  and  Atharva- 
Vedic  literature:  Kali,  Candi,  Durga  (guardian  deity  of  Durga - 
fortified  place)  were  the  terrible  guardian  female  deities  to  whom 
prisoners  of    wars  were    sacrificed   to  keep  them   in   good   humor,  to 


BEX   SYMBOLS  181 

rouse  martial  valor  and  from  preventing  them  from  doing  mischief. 
They  brought  pestilence,  disease,  death  and  destruction.  Bat  if 
these  malignant  domonesaea  are  properly  propitiated,  it  was 
thought,  they  not  only  ward  off  cvilsi  they  become  friendly 
helpers  isaktis)  in  affording  blessings,  achievements,  victories  and 
enjoyments  of  life  like  the  propitious  turns  of  the  wheels  of  fortune, 
Bhagavati  is  the  guardian  goddess  of  Gheruman.  Pulayas,  Kadirs 
worship  Kali  to  get  rid  of  diseases.  Like  K^li,  Diana  of  Ephesus 
and  Astarte  of  Paphos  were  black.  Phrygian  Kybel  — the  Great 
Mother -was  made  of  meteorite  black  stone;  so  in  Cornith  Aphrodite 
Melainis  and  in  Elis  Demeter  molainis. 

Circular  or  eliptio  flattened    meteorite  stone    was  regarded    as   the 
vulva  symbol    in    Demeter    chtenia  and    the    Kaaba    stone  of   Mecca, 
representing    Allat   (the    Venus).     Other   Vulva    symbols    are    shells 
generally,     particularly     Concha    Veneris  =  Fr.  conque  =  Skt    Sankka, 
and  cowry  ;  fountains  of   life — the    spring,  water  ;  the    door    of  life — 
arch,  cave,  pitcher,    ring,  mouth,  folded  hands  (Skt.  argha),    and    any 
flattened    body    with  Dssure,    lock,   jewel    box   as    that   of    Pandora  ; 
garden,    orchard,    peach    in    China    and   Japan,  fig    in    Italy,  apricot 
in  France  ;  any  scented  reddish  flower  with  an  opening  like  Hibiscus 
eenensis  'Skt.  rakta  Java),  Clifcoria  ternatia  (Skt.  aparajita),    red    lotus 
(rakfca  padma).  Mons  Veneris — the  mountain  of  Venus — is  represented 
by    mounds,    domes,    roundish    low    hills    with    plants    and  altars  of 
worship  ;  Mons  veneris  (upastha)   is  the  altar    of    wisdom    (vedi=L 
videre  =  Ger.  Wissens)    and    the    hairs    on  it  are  the  sacrificial  fl-imes 
Vr.  Ar.  Up  5.4-     Female  pubic    hair  =  Durba  grass,  herbs,  mango  and 
-yji'wa  leaves.     Female   breast  =■  pomegranate,    apple    and    vilva   (^gle 
mermelos)  fruits.     Phallus    symbols  =  serpent  (crawling    serpent  about 
to    bite   one  wit.h  venomous  fangs  in  Bgyptinn  hieroglyphlic  a  is  sign 
symbol  for  volupia  =  sensuality    which  in    excess  may  be  as  venomous, 
and  for    which    this    warning    was    given),    fish  (Ital.    pesce=penis; 
Madana    with    a    fish    standard,    Mina-dvaja),     pine    needle,    conical 
meteorite,  roundish    stone    or     mountain,    rod,  finger,     spear,    arrow, 
key,    tongue    (L.  lingua,  lingula, '=Skt    linga,    langula,  also    used    in 
fellatio  ;  Fr.   languette.     dim.    of     langue,    means     clitoris  ;    Madhu 
Jthva  of   Soma    Rv    9.70.4  =  honeyed    tongue  means  his  virile    orc;an 
with  inexhausteble  supply  of  semen),  tail,  banana,  tree.  Sperm  symbols 
=  rain,     honey,    melted    butter,    oil,    liquor,      cream.     Romans    used 
mainly   agricultural    symbols:     FabsB   (beans)    for    testicles;    arbor 
(tree),  thyrsus  (stalk),  radix    (root),    falx   (sickle),  vomer  (ploughshare) 
for    penis;   ros    (dew)    for    semen    (  =  L    seed);     ager    (field),    sulcus 
-{ploughed  furrow),  vinea  (vineard),  fons  (fountain)   for   vagina  ;  plan- 
taria  (herbage)    for    pubic      hair  !    hortus    (enclosed    garden),    fovea 
antrum    (cave),    focus    (fire  pit),    concha  (conch    shell),  cymba  (small 
boat),  annulas  (ring),  delta  for  cunnu8  =  vulva. 

Tab- Yum  Mudra'=  father-mother  pose  Yab  =  Vajra-dhatu*" 
phallus  ;  Yum  =  Garbha-dhatu  =  vagina,  represented  by  two  male 
female  public  hairy  triangles,  one  resting  on  its  base  and  the  other 
resting  on  its  apex,  mutually  interlocked.  According  to  Tib  Kangri 
Karchak,   the   guradian    deity    of   Kailas  =  Tib.  Kang    Bingpoche,   a 


182  THB  LITBRANY  HISTORY  OP  ANCIENT  INDIA 

dome-sheped  snow-covered  peak  22028  ft  high.  Demchhog  =  Buddha- 
sattva  Dharmapala  =  Hindu  Siva,  Hara  clad  in  tiger  skin  in  holding 
damaru  (drum)  in  one  hand  and  Khatam  (trident  in  another)  with 
his  nude  sakti  consort  Dorje  Phangma™  Vajra-Varahi  ;  Hindu  Gauri, 
seated  on  his  lap  on  the  dome  of  Kailasa  in  ecstatic  close  sexsual 
embrace.  In  Tibetan  painting  however  sexual  union  takes  place  in 
the  standing  posture  of  Damechak  who  wearing  a  garland  of  human 
skulls  lifts  his  Sakti  and  nates  (nitamba)  with  his  hands'  she  enfolds 
his  loins  with  her  legs  and  his  neck  with  her  hands,  and  lips  inter- 
locked in  ardent  kisses  1.  On  the  east  of  Kailash  (Tib.  Ke-la-8a  =  lofty 
region)  there  is  flat-topped  snow  covered  Dolma-La-18,600  ft  high 
which  is  regarded  as  the  Sakti-Gauri-of  Kailasesvara.  And  on  its 
base  on  the  eastern  side  of  Kailasa  there  is  an  oval  shaped  lake — 
Tib,  Thuki-Ziagboo-f  of  mile  long,  i  m  broad,  Si'  deep,  at  the 
elevation  of  18,400  ft.  covered  with  ice  atmost  all  the  year  round, 
known  as  Gauri  Kund — the  vaginal  pit  of  Gauri — consort  of 
Kailaseevara.  In  Tibetan  Tantric  Budddism,  supreme  enlightenment  is 
a  complete  well-being,  enjoyment  of  all  desires,  including  the 
the  sensuous,  as  well  as  serenity  of  mind  ;  flowing  from  wisdom, 
transcendenting  all  misapprehenscions  and  delusions  of  phenomenal 
existence  while  the  bliss  of  the  union  with  absolute  innate  truth  is 
quite  formally  symbolized  by  sexual  union.  Whoever  is  going  to  sleep 
with  a  woman,  he  shall  go  to  that  woman  in  the  same  condition 
in  which  he  performs  a  rite  for  the  gods  :  Hittite  Laws  (70).  The 
Konyak  Naga  believes  that  the  sexual  act  is  beneficial  to  the  food 
supply.  Eich  men  arrange  for  young  men  to  screen  off  little 
sleeping  places  on  the  verandahs  of  their  granaries  and  bring  girls 
there  for  the  night.  Ishara  =  Ashera,  a  form  of  lehtar,  as  goddess- 
of  love,  Tablet  2.5.21  The  Epic  of  Giljamesh.  Ishara,  the  lady  of 
the  oath,  in  the  treaty  between  Hattusilas  of  Khatti  and  User- 
Maat  Reselepen-Re  of  'Egypt,— Ancient  Near  Eastern  Texts,  I  B 
Pvitchard,  Princeton  Press,  1950.  Lith.  of  god  coition  Pizius.  Terra- 
cotta nude  standing  figurine  of  third  millenium  B.C.  from  Susa.  Head 
covered  with  plaited  hair  bands.  Hands  on  the  breasts.  Incised 
hairy  triangle.  Pi.  18  F.  Terracotta  nude  standing  figurines  fron 
Astarabad  Turang  Tepe  2500-1500  B.  G.  One  is  10^  in,  hands 
pressing  the  breasts  :  large  pubic  triangle  with  luxuriant  curly  hair. 
PI,  24  A.  The  other  V^V  vi^ith  extend  arms  with  bracelets  as  if 
to  derobe  herself  ;  heavy  chain  necklaces  ;  narrowed  slender  waist  ; 
enlarged  pubic  hairy  triangle  with  incised  marks  Pi  24B.  Parthian 
bronze  nude  standing  figurine  4i'',  headdress  covering  the  ears  and 
neck  ;  folded  hands  beneath  the  breast  ;  prominent  vulvar  cleft  with 
pubic  hair,  Pi  134  D.  AP  Pope — Persian  Art. 

In  philosophy  Siva  and  Sakti  are  regarded  as  inseparable  eternally 
conjugated  Purusha  and  Prakriti — matter  and  energy.  Purusha  is 
the  latent  energy  of  mass  inertia.  By  the  papid  rotatory  motions 
of  Sakii-Prakriti — like  the  electrons  round  the  nucleus  of  the  atom. 
(Gk.  a  =  not;  temain  =  to  cut-indivisible  unit  =  Skt.  paramanu),  not 
only  force  is  accelerted,  dynamic  momentum  (cosmic  dance  of 
Nataraja(  is  added  to  her   complex   con-joint   Purusha  mate.     In  Rv. 


ANIMAL  WORSHIP  183 

I,  43.  4,  Siva«-Ruclra  is  a  great  singer,  a  wise  man, a  healor  throufili 
hails  ;  gatha-patim  medba-patim  Hudram  jalasha-bboBlmj&m.  Ilail  is 
the  Vajra-Virya  of  Kudra-Siva  that  fecundates  the  Earth-mother — 
Sakti-Uma  (Go)  Rv.  4.  41.  6  :  x,  101,  9  ;  x,  233.  7-Zd.  Gaus  urva^ 
Lat.  arvum  =  skt.  urvara),  producing  vegetation. 

In  and  after  Kuehana  period,  Sapta  Matrikas  have  had  their 
represntations.  In  early  iconographs  (now  in  Mathura  M),  MHrik'tg 
are  youthful  goddesses.  K'^ili  and  C<iraund"i  of  ttie  early  Pallavas 
of  ninth  century  in  Nalumu  sculptures  are  of  youthful  sensual  types 
with  the  tight  breast  band  of  an  entwining  serpent — naga-kuoa- 
bhandha — and  a  garland  of  ekulls  hanging  over  the  right— shoulder 
— Kapala  Yajno-pavita,  Chalukya  Kanarese,  Orissan  and  Gaudiya 
Camunda  is  an  emaciated  woman  in  skeleton  frame  with  conical 
hanging  breasts,  sunken  eyes  with  ppreadout  flaming  hairs  and  a 
copse  suspended  from  her  earrings — Preta  Kundala — riding  astride 
over  a  dead  man  —a  necrophilous  witch.  In  the  Tantras  it  is  mentioned 
that  Kali  is  fond  of  reverse  postures  in  coitus  (viparitha  ratatura), 
oausing  the  erection  of  the  penis  by  licking  ib  with  her  tongue,  for 
wh  ch  in  iconography  she  is  depicted  as  riding  over  a  supine  man 
and  having  proturding  tongue.  On  2nd  century  B.  C  the  cults  of 
Kubera  (Cabiri  worshipped  in  Phonicia  and  Greece),  Siva,  Vasudeva 
and  Sankashama  are  observed.  Nanaghat  cave  inscription  of  1st 
century  B.  C.  opens  with  invocation  of  Vasudeva,  Sankarshana 
=  Balararna.  The  earliest  deities  were  the  reptiles,  of  which  the 
snake  was  the  best  representative.  It  is  found  in  China,  Japan, 
Indo  China,  Indonesia,  Borneo,  Australia,  India,  Egypt,  Abbysinnia, 
among  the  African  tribes — Bantus,  Zulus,  Masai.  Hottentotes, 
Dahon  ;  among  the  Canaanites,  Hebrews,  Phoenicians,  Cretans, 
Greeks,  Romans,  Lombards,  Kelts,  Germans,  Russians,  Lithuanians  ; 
amonst  the  Amerinds — Hopis.  Apaches  ,  Algoquans.  Animals  like 
alligator,  apes,  ass,  bear,  beaver,  bison,  boar,  buffaloes,  bull,  cat, 
catfish,  cow,  crab,  crocodile,  cuttlefish,  deer,  dog,  dolphin,  eel, 
elephants,  elk,  ewe,  fish,  frog,  gazelle,  goat,  gorilla,  hare,  hippopota- 
mus, lion,  leopard,  lizard,  monkey,  mouse,  pig,  ram,  snake,  squirrel, 
tiger,  tortoise,  turtle,  weasel,  whale  and  wolf  were  worshipped  in 
different  countries.  Insects  as  ants,  bees,  beetles,  butterflies,  crickets, 
grasshoppers,   scorpions,  wasps  were  also  worshipped. 

Risika  MBh  3.24.24-25.  Inscription  of  Sata-Vahana  Gotamiputa 
mentions  Asika  (Asi),  Asaka,  Mulaka.  Kasika  Sutra  :  Risekesha  jata 
Arsika  =  Aorsi  or  Arsasces.  MBh  2.47.  26  Kanika  Sangabha  =  Chin.  Kang 
Kiui  Seng-hui.  Munayo  (silent  ascetics)  vatarasanah  (wind-girt  =nude) 
pisanga  vasate  mala  (covered  with  yellow  dirt).  Rv.  x,13C.2. 
Yagnabis  is  allied  to  Yuechi8  =  Ruks  (fair)- As  [Raksasa,  Yak sh a) ^G&tti 
Massagetae,  known  as  Tocharian  whose  language  is  close  to  the 
Keltic  and  Latin  than  either  to  the  Slavic  or  Iranian,  distinctly 
Alpine,  of  medium  stature,  thickset  body,  built  with  short  arms  and 
legs,  large  bauds  and  feet,  very  hirsute  and  brown  with  broad  face 
and  large  head=  Yajnavid,  one  versed  in  sacrifices. 


INDEX 

SUBJECT 

PAGE 

SUBJBOT 

PAGE 

Aditi 

7,92 

Kharvela 

44,  114 

Agastya      81,  162,  164,  167,  170 

Khatti 

28,  32,  8-2 

Ajanta 

119 

Kinnara 

4,  17,  111 

Aja  -  Ekapad 

95 

Kshasharatas 

7                   J 

47 

Aila  Furu-ravas 

'c2 

Kuru-Krivis 

7, 

10,  17.  35,  37 

Amaravati 

112.  118,  128 

Kushans 

48, 108,  148 

Andhigu  =  Andhaka  11,  60.  70,  73 

Mad  a 

4 

Angirasas 

5,  11,  19 

Madra 

11 

Angkor  Vat 

168 

Maga  =  Mriga 

18 

Arts 

97—145 

Maba  Bharata 

25 

Asoka 

S9,  40,  43 

Mahayana  Buddh 

ism            171 

Asvaka 

150 

Marutah 

87 

Asvamedha 

17-13 

Maurya  Gupta: 

3  88,  104,  113.  172 

Asvins 

76,  86,  89,  98 

Mitra 

76 

Astronomy 

88—95 

Nagarjuna  Khond 

a                129 

Atharvaveda 

18-20 

Parjanya 

93 

Atreyas 

4,5 

Pisacim 

U 

Bagh 

121 

Pulasta 

5,24 

Barabudur 

162,170 

Pushan 

94 

Bhoga 

7 

Kamayana 

23    25 

Bharut 

107,  111,117 

Elk -Veda 

3-13 

Bhrigus 

33,85 

Risya-Sringa 

32 

Chinese  Inventions        155,  167 

Eudra 

94 

Cholas 

63,  161 

Sailendras 

157,  162 

Coins 

146—153 

Saka 

11,  37,  1:^9 

Daksha 

78 

Sanci 

157.  162 

Dharma  Sutras 

21 

Savitar 

6, 

84,  92,  97,  98 

Eroticism  as  an 

Art               176 

Script 

64—73 

Gadhi 

4 

Soma 

84 

Ghosa 

9 

Soma  Vamsa 

15,29 

Gtoamas 

4,  6,  11 

Stellar  Elyths 

74    82 

Gritsa-Madas 

4 

Sudra 

172 

Gupta            52, 

53,  55,  112,  130 

Sunga 

45,  113,  172 

Hata  Yoga 

175 

Tantra  Cult 

171-184 

Hiranya  Kasipu 

16 

Upanishads 

21-  23 

Hunas 

33,  55,  67 

Ushas 

5,  79,  98 

Ikshvakus 

16,33 

Vajrayana 

175 

Indra 

5,  66,  176 

Varuna 

15 

Kalki 

16,41 

Vena 

86 

Kambojas 

15,  60,  149,  165 

Vishtaspa 

13 

Kanishka 

48,  49,  109.  151 

Yajurveda 

17 

Kavi  Literature 

162 

Yaksha 

9,  48,  107 

Kasyapas 

28,  74,  78 

Zaratustra 

13—16 

Kaundinyas 

163 

Zodiac 

98 

All  Rights 

Beserved. 

Published  by  B.  K.  Chakravarti  of  81, 

Vivekananda  Road,  Calcutta   6  and  print- 

ed  by  A.  K.  Bose  at  Sakti  Press,  27/3B,  H 

ari  Ghosh  Street,  Calcutta  6.   India. 

oinoiNG  SECT.  OCT  2  4  1969 


300506217014 


DS 
cop.  2 


Ch^A-rtioerty,  Chandra 

Literery  hif  Uiry   of  encient 
India 


JVallace 


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